Classical Civilization China summary

 

 

 

Classical Civilization China summary

 

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Classical Civilization China summary

Classical Civilization: China

During the internal weakening of China’s river valley dynasty, the Shang, a family called the Zhou began to rise in power and influence.  At first allied with the Shang, they soon grew concerned about Shang corruption and mismanagement.  Around 1100 B.C.E. the Zhou overthrew the Shang and set themselves up as the rulers of China.  In order to justify this move and shore up their own political legitimacy, the Zhou advocated the idea of the Mandate of Heaven.  This idea holds that heaven—an impersonal spiritual power—is somehow related to earthly events.  This power would grant the right, or mandate, to whomever was most fit to govern earthly affairs thus linking heaven and earth through the ruler.  If the ruler failed to live up to standards of fairness and justice, an imbalance would occur, chaos would ensue, and heaven would revoke the mandate given to the ruler.  The Zhou used this argument to prove that the Shang no longer had the mandate of heaven which they claimed now fell to themselves.  This concept of the Mandate of Heaven is an enduring element of Chinese society.

This transition of power also exemplifies a pattern of political change much different that that in India.  In China a ruling dynasty would give in to corruption and weaken.  Then, a provincial ruling family would rise in power, challenge the ruling dynasty, and gain supremacy.  They would then become the next dynasty and claim the Mandate of Heaven.

The Zhou governed China for centuries through a decentralized political system.  As they weakened and collapsed a period of Chinese history began called the Period of the Warring States.  From roughly 400-200 B.C.E. Chinese civilization fractured into regions characterized by chaos and warring rivalries.  Like all civilizations experiencing decline, Chinese thinkers began to ponder the reasons for their predicament; in doing so, they produced a remarkable outpouring of ideas and philosophies which would affect China’s classical age and the rest of its history.  The most famous ideas to come from this period were Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism.

Confucius was a teacher of ethical and political ideas that are contained in a work called the Analects.  His thought is not so much philosophical or religious as it is practical.  For years he sought a position in the government but never achieved it.  For Confucius, it was not the form of government that was important but rather the proper harmony of human relationships.  He believed that the government should be run by “superior individuals” who had a sense of kindness and benevolence and who governed by what they thought to be best for everyone.  The subjects in return should respect and support their leader’s decisions.  Social harmony depended upon everyone accepting their social place and performing its required tasks.  When society was held together by personal ties of loyalty and obedience, the intrusion of the state into social affairs would be minimal.  Particularly important to Confucius was relationships and respect in the family.  But in all cases this was a two-way relation: those in power must act in such as way as to command trust and respect; they must model the behavior of the ideal citizen.  Those at the bottom must give them respect and obedience as an act of civic duty.  Thus personal character traits were not to be developed for their own sake, but rather as a stabilizing force across society.

A man named Laozi offered an alternative to Confucianism.  His belief, Daoism, held that rather than establish ideal relationships between humans, people should rather cultivate their relationship with nature.  Daoists are committed to discovering the Dao, or the Way, a concept that defines explanation or categorization.  Regardless, Daoists stressed a life of withdrawal to nature and inner contemplation as an alternative to the Confucian ordering of personal relations. 

A third answer to China’s troubled times came from those known as Legalists.  Legalism held that human relations and man’s relation to nature were irrelevant to social and political life.  Rather, they held that chaos could only be eliminated by a powerful, merciless state.  Since only agriculture and a strong military contributed to a healthy state, other diversions, such as poetry, art, trade and philosophical reflection, were discouraged.  The state should coerce its subjects to obey by ruthlessly applying a strict code of laws and punishments.  Dropping trash in the street, for example, was punishable by having a hand or foot cut off.  Although Legalism was unpopular with the people, it was the application of this way of thinking that pulled China out of the Period of the Warring States and began the unification of its Classical Age.

The Period of Warring States ended when the Qin dynasty centralized power and destroyed regional opposition.  Although it lasted only 14 years, the Qin dynasty set in place many important aspects of Chinese civilization.

One of the most important things the Qin did was create a bureaucracy.  Bureaucrats are employees of the state whose position in society, unlike nobles or aristocrats, does not rest on an independent source of wealth or ownership of land.  Members of the bureaucracy only had positions and power as granted by the emperor.  Land owning aristocrats have large estates and person fortunes at stake, so they have a vested interest in influencing the government in their personal favor.  By creating a bureaucracy, the Qin bypassed the aristocrats and governed through those whose position depended on loyal obedience to the state. 

In order to bring unity to China, the Qin also built roads and bridges, constructed defensive walls, standardized units of weight and measurement, created a standard currency, and made one common form of Chinese writing.  The harsh Legalism of the Qin allowed it to do much during it short reign of 14 years, but this same strict political philosophy also generated much resentment among the common people.  As soon as the emperor died, the people revolted and slaughtered many of the remaining Qin officials.

But unlike previous eras, Chinese civilization did not regress into chaos for long.  The Han dynasty came to power and ruled China for about 400 years, roughly 200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.  The ability of the Han to maintain a strong central government over such a vast area was greatly facilitated by the Qin reforms under Legalism. 

Under the leadership of emperor Han Wudi, the Han Dynasty is responsible for some very important innovations that would have a lasting effect on China: the official adoption of Confucianism and the rise of the civil service examinations. 

The Han adopted Confucianism because it was the most organized educational network from which they could draw people for the bureaucracy.  To make certain new recruits were educated well, they began testing them through a rigorous system of civil service examinations; to be in the Han bureaucracy, one had to demonstrate a mastery of Confucian ideas on these test.  One effect of this was that the Han bureaucracy was filled with people profoundly influenced by Confucian thought: they were taught to model good behavior for those under them and to respect and submit to those in authority over them.  Thus Confucianism not only became deeply imbedded in Chinese culture, it also came to re-enforce the political bureaucracy by advocating obedience and benevolent rule. 

Han Wudi also expanded the boundaries of imperial China both extending its influence into new realms and bringing new influences into its culture.  The Chinese invaded Korea and northern Vietnam, taking with them the values of Confucianism.  They also came into contact with Buddhism during this period. 

Like the other civilizations, most laborers in China were agricultural and the surplus they supported the rise of craft industries and trade.  They learned to forge iron tools and weave silk.  The wealth generated by trade, however, created the tensions that would internally weaken the Han and lead, in part, to its downfall.

 

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Classical Civilization China summary

CHAPTER 2: CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION: CHINA
                                Page 34 – 47

 

SUMMARY

Patterns in Classical China

The political rivalries, warfare, and rebellions that arose from the decline of the Zhou dynasty promoted debate over China’s political and social ills. In the last centuries of the later Zhou era, some of China’s greatest thinkers tried different ways to restore order and social harmony. Central to culture were the family, filial piety, harmony, reciprocal social relationships, and deference to social superiors.

Political Institutions

Political institutions became one of classical China’s hallmarks. Among the most permanent aspects of Chinese culture was the belief in the unity and the desirability of a central government in the hands of an emperor assisted by an educated, professional bureaucracy. Both Legalism and Confucianism became state philosophies under the Qin and Han dynasties.

Religion and Culture

Chinese culture began coalescing during the last, calamitous centuries of Zhou rule. During this time three critical secular philosophies arose. Daoism taught harmony with the way, and influenced art and science. Confucianism, emphasizing relationships and ethics became the predominant philosophy. Legalism favored the state and harsh rule. All emphasized the role of education to achieve social ends.

Economy and Society

China’s classical economy focused on agriculture. All philosophies extolled the virtues of the peasants and their world. Despite social inequalities based on ownership of land and education, there was respect for the peasant masses. The state also fostered an extensive internal trade, even while maintaining some ambivalence about merchants and commercial values. Socially China was hierarchical, deferential, and patriarchal.

Conclusion: How Chinese Civilization Fit Together

China’s politics and culture meshed readily, especially around the emergence of a Confucian bureaucracy. Economic innovation did not disrupt the emphasis on order and stability, and family structures were closely linked to political and cultural goals. Classical Chinese civilization evolved with very little outside contact. Most Chinese saw the world in terms of a large island of civilization surrounded by barbarians with nothing to offer save periodic invasions.
CHAPTER REVIEW

Describe the teachings and institutions of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism.

Describe the development of the Chinese state and its political institutions.

How did the dynasties create a unified Chinese society and culture?

How and why did warfare change under classical societies?

Describe the class structure and gender relations in classical China.

What class came to dominate Chinese government and how was it created?

What intellectual and technological advancements did imperial China make?

Describe the influence of merchants and the importance of commerce to China.

 

VOCABULARY

Confucian Five Relationships

Filial Piety

Ancestor worship

Dynasty

Scholar-gentry

Legalism

Daoism; Dao

Secret Societies

Yin-Yang

 

MAP EXERCISES

Map 5.1: China from the Later Zhou Era to the Han Era (Page 37)
How did physical geography contribute to Chinese isolation?

China calls itself Chung Kuo or the Middle Kingdom, the land at the center of the civilized world. How would geography have contributed to this belief?
Extending Knowledge: Two Chinas and Two Rivers
There are two distinct regions within China defined by the Yangtze and the Huang-He Rivers. China south of the Yangtze grows rice, while Northern China around the Huang-he grows wheat and grains. How would geography, climate, and foodstuffs lead to two different Chinese cultures and lifestyles?

What policies and technologies would have been necessary to control and to unify the geographically large Chinese state?

 

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS: The Teaching of the Rival Chinese Schools (Page 42)

Document Analysis
Who wrote the documents? (Attribution includes biographical references)

What were the authors’ points of view?

How reliable are the documents? Why?

What were the intents or purposes behind the documents?

Who were the intended audiences?

What are the documents’ tones?

Drawing Conclusions
Which ideas were secular and religious?

Which ideas favored the individual, the state, and the group?

Why would education and social relationships central to all philosophies?

 

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

In the influence of geography upon culture, Chinese most closely resembles
India.
Egypt.
Greece.
Mesopotamia.
Rome.

Confucianism, Daoism and Legalism
were officially sanctioned doctrines of the Chin and Han emperors.
are religions, which developed in classical China.
emphasized the needs of the individual over the welfare of the state.
had little influence upon China and Chinese society until the late 900s C.E.
originated as responses to societal problems during times of disruption.
Confucian social relationships
established a hierarchy and insisted upon reciprocal duties between people.
taught its practitioners to seek inner harmony with the natural way.
used rewards for correct behavior and punishments for transgressions.
were based on universal love and forgiveness.
stressed the welfare and the interests of the state.

The doctrine sponsored by the Qin Dynasty to support its state
encouraged education, new ideas, and tolerated criticism of the state.
broke the power of vassals in order to enhance the power of the emperor.
paid the northern nomadic groups tribute to prevent invasions.
tolerated local lords performing functions for the central government.
used reciprocal social arrangements and scholar-officials as bureaucrats.

The Qin Dynasty alienated all of these groups EXCEPT:
Confucian scholars through banning and burning the classical texts.
peasants through conscription and excessive labor projects.
trained bureaucrats who no longer administered government offices.
traditional aristocrats who lost their lands and positions.
Daoist priests.

During the Han Dynasty, scholar officials
lost their governmental offices to aristocrats.
came increasingly from the merchant and peasant classes.
utilized Legalism as a ruling doctrine.
insisted on harsh law codes to maintain control.
instituted a system of examination to prepare professional civil servants.

Although they varied greatly in wealth and social status in China,
the commoners, especially the peasants, remained the largest group.
the scholar bureaucrats cooperated to limit the influence of the ruler.
aristocrats owned most of the land.
women had many legal rights and protections.
urban artisans and merchants dominated Chinese society.

Chinese women in the Classical Age
were free to choose the men they would marry.
could become scholar-gentry provided they passed the state exams.
were legally subordinated to fathers and husbands at all class levels.
dominated the intellectual and artistic activities of China.
varied greatly in status, influence, and rights.

 

 

Despite their material success and increased wealth,
foreigners were prohibited from settling in China.
Chinese rulers were isolated from the masses and did not intervene in government.
Chinese aristocrats had no influence within the government.
merchants in China ranked below peasants and had little societal influence.
the scholar-gentry were prohibited from owning land.

Chinese belief systems differ from Hinduism and polytheism most in
their secular outlooks on the world.
emphasizing correct behavior and performance of rituals and rites.
concentrating on the need for the gods’ saving grace.
supporting a relative legally and social equality for women.
deifying nature.

 

ESSAY QUESTIONS

How did Chinese (1) society or (2) government change from the Zhou through the Han dynasties?

Compare and contrast Qin and Han government and society with any one of these: (1) Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization; or (2) any other classical civilization in India, Rome, and Greece.

Compare and contrast dynastic China and Egypt and account for their longevity.

Compare and contrast Daoist, Confucian, and Legalist approaches to solving social disruptions and ineffective and corrupt government.

Compare and contrast the rise of the Chinese imperial system with the rise of any one (1) ancient or (2) classical civilization.

 

 

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Classical Civilization China summary

Chapter 2, Classical Civilization: China

Summary:

The major development during the classical period was the formation of large regional civilizations in China, India, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East.  These areas had by far the largest concentration of population.  Furthermore, the influence these civilizations extended into surrounding regions outside their direct control.  Much of the development of each civilization was separate and the establishment of distinctive cultural and institutional patterns was a key legacy of this period.  One of the triggers for the clear transition into the classical period was the introduction of iron tools and weapons.  With this development each classical civilization developed its own social structure, religion, political system, system of science, and style of art.  While the introduction of iron in the classical period, the period itself did not witness sweeping technological developments.  Patriarchal culture prevailed with a new emphasis on the respect for the achievement of old age.

Key Concepts:

Patterns in Classical China:

• Three dynastic cycles cover the many centuries of classical China: the Zhou, the Qin, and the Han.
• Political instability and frequent invasions caused the decline of the Zhou Dynasty and promoted debate over China’s political and social ills.
• In the last centuries of the later Zhou era, some of China’s greatest thinkers, including Confucius, tried different ways to restore order and social harmony.  Central to culture were the family, filial piety, harmony, reciprocal social relationships, and deference to social superiors.
• Shi Huangdi, the brutal founder of the Qin Dynasty, centralized power in China, and began construction of the Great Wall.
• Wu Ti, most famous of the Han rulers, supported Confucianism and promoted peace.

 

Political Institutions:

• For most of recorded history, the Chinese people have been the most tightly governed people in any society in the world.
• Political institutions became one of classical China’s hallmarks.  Among the most permanent aspects of Chinese culture was the belief in the unity and the desirability of a central government in the hands of an emperor assisted by an educated, professional bureaucracy.

 

Religion and Culture:

• Chinese culture began coalescing during the last, calamitous centuries of Zhou rule.  During this time, three critical secular philosophies arose, each of which emphasized the role of education to achieve social ends.
• Confucianism, an ethical system based on relationships and personal virtue, became the predominant philosophy.
• Legalism countered Confucianism by favoring an authoritarian state and harsh rule.
• Daoism taught harmony with nature and humble living.  Laozi was Daoism’s most popular figure.
• Art in classical China was mostly decorative, and appeared in many forms, including calligraphy, carved jade and ivory, and silk screens.
• Science and mathematics emphasized the practical over the theoretical, and the ancient Chinese were particularly adept at astronomy.

 

Economy and Society:

• China’s classical economy focused on agriculture.  All Chinese philosophies extolled the virtues of the peasants and their world.
• Sharp class division existed between 1) the landowning aristocracy and educated bureaucrats – Mandarins, 2) the laboring masses, peasants, and urban artisans, and 3) the “mean” people, or those without meaningful skills.
• The state also fostered an extensive internal trade, even while maintaining some ambivalence about merchants and commercial values.
• Technological advances were plentiful, including ox – drawn plows, water – powered mills, and paper.
• Socially China was hierarchical, deferential, and patriarchal, and tight family structure was valued.

 

How Chinese Civilization Fits Together:

• China’s politics and culture meshed readily, especially around the emergence of a Confucian bureaucracy.
• Economic innovation did not disrupt the emphasis on order and stability, and family structures were closely linked to political and cultural goals.
• Classical Chinese civilization evolved with very little outside contact.  Though internal disagreement existed, most Chinese saw the world as a large island of civilization (China) surrounded by barbarians with nothing to offer save periodic invasions.

 

Key Terms:

Chapter 2, Quiz Questions

1) One difference between classical civilizations and river valley civilizations was that in classical civilizations
A) most people farmed the land.
B) political organizations were more elaborate.
C) trade was introduced.
D) writing was developed.
E) beliefs were widely held.

2) One difference between classical China and the earlier Huanghe river valley civilization was that
A) human sacrifices were suppressed.
B) traditions emphasized the harmony of nature.
C) irrigation was widely practiced.
D) China became relatively isolated.
E) farming was important.

3) A "dynasty" in Chinese history was
A) any emperor who lasted more than two decades.
B) a family that passed the imperial title from generation to generation.
C) powerful bureaucrats who ran the state.
D) big business families who monopolized overseas trade.
E) kings dominated by foreign interests.

4) The "Son of Heaven" concept promoted all of the following EXCEPT
A) loyalty to the emperor.
B) centralization of power in the state.
C) priests' control of the state.
D) the remoteness of emperor from subjects.
E) an explanation of the decline of dynasties.

5) The Qin dynasty differed from the Zhou dynasty in that
A) it lasted longer.
B) it practiced Confucianism.
C) it was more centralized.
D) it was defeated by invading Huns.
E) it eventually declined and fell.

6) All of the following constituted a function of government in Han China EXCEPT
A) promotion of scientific research.
B) promotion of Confucian beliefs.
C) schools for peasant boys.
D) punishment of criminals.
E) large construction projects.

7) Chinese views of nature emphasized
A) harmony and balance.
B) a powerful, all-seeing God.
C) that nature was uncontrollable.
D) that the key to understanding lay through scientific experiments.
E) deities that punished sinful people.

8) Which of the following was a Confucian belief?
A) Change should be encouraged and modeled by the emperor.
B) A good society has a hierarchy both in family and state.
C) Merchants must be valued for their money-making skills.
D) Governments must not interfere with individual rights.
E) People of all social classes and abilities should be actively involved in government.

9) Ceremony and hierarchy became an important part of upper-class Chinese life because
A) the Chinese believed that women should regulate the household.
B) the Chinese believed that it would help unify society and prevent greed.
C) the Chinese believed that polite behavior was a way to please the gods.
D) the Chinese believed that courtesy would win salvation in heaven.
E) the Chinese religion contained many public celebrations.

10) Daoists would agree with Confucianists on all of the following EXCEPT
A) the importance of political activity.
B) scorn for greed.
C) basic harmony of nature.
D) importance of restraint in personal life.
E) the importance of tradition.

11) The Chinese government accepted Daoism for all of the following reasons EXCEPT
A) Daoists did not have great political ambitions.
B) Daoists believed that nobles were holier than peasants.
C) Daoists came to acknowledge the Son of Heaven.
D) Daoists provided spiritual insights for many in the upper classes.
E) Daoism embraced traditional Chinese beliefs.

12) Chinese art featured
A) frequent shifts in style.
B) careful craftsmanship and detail work.
C) monumental temples and stadiums.
D) emphasis on God and the holy family.
E) images of perfectly proportioned humans.

13) Which of the following groups was considered "low standing" in official Chinese social hierarchy?
A) Students
B) Merchants
C) Peasants
D) Scholars
E) Soldiers

14) One of China's key economic strengths was
A) extensive overseas trade.
B) government encouragement of the merchant class.
C) high levels of technological innovation.
D) early introduction of steam-powered equipment.
E) cheap slave labor.

15) Women in Han Chinese society
A) could rise to the level of the emperor but only if they had no children.
B) sometimes become quite powerful in a household.
C) tended to be poor and were sometimes sold into slavery.
D) tended to marry much younger men.
E) would not have children until much older.

16) A famous example of "cultural diffusion" in early Chinese history was
A) the spread of paper-making technology from the Middle East.
B) the use of the iron plow from Rome.
C) the development of written Mandarin Chinese characters.
D) the introduction and spread of Buddhism from India.
E) the use of the chariot, which was brought in by the Mongols.

Essay Questions:
Classical Civilization: China

1. What kinds of political problems was the development of bureaucracy in Han China meant to solve?

 

2. How does one explain why the early Chinese people were so creative yet their society was relatively isolated?

3. How did Chinese culture, particularly Confucian philosophy, support the political structure of the empire?

 

4. Why was China able to accept two different basic belief systems, Confucianism and Daoism?

5. Aside from periods of outright political decline, what were the chief tensions in Chinese society and culture?  How were they handled?

 

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