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CHAPTER SUMMARY 11

The fourteenth century was a era of crisis. A “little ice” age led to famine, but a greater disaster followed: the Black Death. The bubonic plague was spread by black rats’ fleas, carrying the bacterium Yersina pestis, while the pneumonic variety was transmitted through the air from person to person. It reached Europe in 1347. In a few years up to 50 percent of the population died, with higher mortality rates in urban areas. It returned every few years for centuries.

Reactions differed. Some escaped into alcohol, sex, and crime. Others, believing the Black Death to be a punishment from God, attempted to atone for their sins through self-inflicted pain. The Jews became scapegoats. People fled, carrying the plague with them. The resulting labor shortage could benefit peasants, although the demand for products was also reduced. When the ruling classes reduced wage rates there were peasant revolts. The ruling classes quelled the revolts, but social upheaval continued to plague the post-plague world.

Wars were also part of the crisis, notably the Hundred Years War between England and France. In 1328 the French Capetian line ended. England’s Edward III (d.1377) claimed the French throne, but a cousin to the Capets, Philip of Valois, became king (d.1350). War soon began. Armored knights on horseback were the backbone of medieval armies, but English peasants using the longbow had begun to change the face of war. When the French king was captured, a treaty was signed in 1360: France agreed to pay ransom, the English received land in France, and Edward renounced his claim to the throne. Using guerilla tactics, the French regained their lands, but in 1415 England’s Henry V (d.1422) invaded. The French cause was saved by Joan of Arc (d.1431), a young peasant woman, who claimed to have been told by an angel and saints that she should offer her support to the dauphin, the heir to the throne. Her leadership inspired the French, who also began to rely on cannon, and by 1453 France had won.

During Edward III’s reign, the English Parliament gained control over taxes, increasing its power. In France, however, the Estates-General failed to achieve the same influence. Competing aristocratic factions also divided both kingdoms. In Germany, dukedoms and city-states went their own way, independent of the Holy Roman Emperor, itself an elective office. Italy was divided into small kingdoms in the south, the Papal States in central Italy, and several city-states in the north, notably Milan and the oligarchic republics of Florence and Venice. Warfare was endemic.

The papacy declined. Confrontation between France’s Philip IV (d.1314) and Pope Boniface VIII led to the removal of the papacy to Avignon on France’s border in 1305. From 1377 there were two competing popes. Some argued that a general council, not the pope, should rule the church, and Conciliarism did end the Great Schism. There was a preoccupation with salvation. Some turned to good works, others to mysticism and devotional movements. The scholastics’ confidence in reason was attacked: God’s existence could only be “proved” by faith.

Vernacular literature was exemplified in Italy by Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch, Chaucer in England, and Christine de Pizan in France. In art, Giotto explored three-dimensional realism. After the Black Death, artists frequently portrayed subjects of death and decay. The impact of the plague led to urban public health regulations, to younger marriages, and to a greater division of gender roles under the assumption that women were the weaker gender. Technological developments included the perfection of the clock and eyeglasses, and paper began to replace parchment. Finally, the development of gunpowder blew the Middle Ages into history.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 12

Beginning in Italy, the Renaissance (or “rebirth”) was an era that rediscovered the culture of ancient Greece and Rome. It was also a time of recovery from the fourteenth century. In comparison with medieval society, the Renaissance had a more secular and individualistic ethos, but might best been seen as evolutionary in its urban and commercial continuity from the High Middle Ages. In the North Sea, the Hanseatic League competed with merchants from the Mediterranean, where the Venetians had a commercial empire. In Florence, profits from the woolen industry were invested in banking.

The aristocracy remained the ruling class, its ideals explicated in Castiglione’s The Book of the Courtier. Peasants were still the vast majority, but serfdom and manorialism were dying out. An important minority were the inhabitants of towns and cities, with merchants and bankers at the apex and the unskilled workers at the bottom. The father or husband as a dictator dominated the extended family, and marriages were arranged for social and economic advantage. Wives were much younger than their husbands, with their primary function being to bear children; the mortality rate in childbirth and for infants and young children remained high.

Italy was dominated by five major states: the duchy of Milan, Florence, Venice, the Papal States, and the kingdom of Naples. There were also other city-states that were centers of culture and where women played vital roles. At the end of the fifteenth century, Spain and France invaded the divided peninsula. The exemplar of the new statecraft was Niccolo Machiavelli (d.527), whose The Prince described the methods of gaining and holding political power: moral concerns are irrelevant, for the ends justify the means.

There was an increased emphasis upon the human. Among the influential humanists was Petrarch (d.1374) in his advocacy of classical Latin writers. Civic humanism posited that the ideal citizen was not only an intellectual but also a patriot, actively serving the state, and humanist education was to produce individuals of virtue and wisdom. The printing press was perfected, multiplying the availability of books. In art, the aim was to imitate nature by the use of realistic perspective. Masaccio (d.1428), Donatello (d.1466) and Michelangelo (d.1564) made Florence a locus of the arts. The High Renaissance of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci (d.1519) and Raphael (d.1520) combined natural realism with Platonic idealism. The artisan might become a great artist, and thus transform his social and economic status.

It was the era of the “new monarchies.” In France, Louis XI (d.1483), the Spider, established a centralized state. England’s Henry VII (d.1509) limited the private armies of the aristocracy, raised taxes, and left a more powerful monarchy. In Spain, Isabella (d.1504) and Ferdinand (d.1516) created a professional army and enforced religious uniformity by the conversion and expulsion of Jews and Moslems. The Holy Roman Empire remained weak, but the Habsburg emperors created a strong state of their own through numerous marriages. The were no “new monarchies” in eastern Europe, but Russia’s Ivan III (d.1505) ended Mongol control. Lastly, in 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.

The church was besieged by problems. John Wyclif (d.1384) and John Hus (d.1415) condemned the papacy for corruption, its temporal concerns, and demanded the Bible in the vernacular. The popes reflected their era, and their secular involvements overshadowed their spiritual responsibilities. Some preferred war and politics to prayer and piety, and others ignored their vows of celibacy, ambitiously advancing their families over the needs of the faithful. Most were great patrons of the arts, but religious concerns ranked behind the pleasures of this life.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 13

The roots of the religious reformations of the sixteenth century were several, including Christian humanism, where the focus was on the Bible and the writings of the church fathers. Among the humanists was Desiderius Erasmus (d.1536), who stressed inner piety and Christ as a guide for daily life rather than dogma and ritual. The Church was criticized for corruption, materialism, and for abuses such as pluralism and absenteeism. For many the quest for salvation was often merely mechanical: collecting relics, going on pilgrimages, purchasing indulgences to reduce time in purgatory. To the medieval church, the sacraments administered by the clergy ensured salvation, but Martin Luther (d.1546) argued that faith alone was the answer, and that the Bible, not the Church, was the sole authority. In 1517 Luther went public in his criticisms. Outlawed after being condemned by pope and emperor, he translated the Bible into German.

Erasmus agreed with Luther’s ideas, but feared that they would destroy Christian unity. When peasants rose in rebellion, Luther condemned them: equality before God did not mean equality on earth, and pragmatically, Luther needed the support of the German princes against Emperor Charles V (r.1519-1556). In 1555, Charles and the princes agreed to the Peace of Augsburg, by which each prince would determine the religion of his subjects. Lutheranism became the state religion Scandinavia. In Switzerland, Ulrich Zwingli (d.1531) removed stained glass windows and eliminated music from worship. When Pope Clement VII was unable to annul the marriage of England’s Henry VIII (d.1547), Parliament established a separate church with the monarch as its head. John Calvin (d.1564) agreed with Luther’s theology, but went further in emphasizing God’s sovereignty and the concept of predestination: some were predestined for heaven, others for hell. His leadership made Geneva, Switzerland, the locus of Protestantism.

For Protestants the family was the center of human society, but theological equality did not lead to equality in marriage: the wife’s role was to obey her husband and bear children. Education was encouraged because of the necessity to read God’s word. Catholic holy days and religious carnivals were abolished; some went further, closing theaters and abolishing dancing.

Within the Catholic Church, the most important religious order was the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (d.1556), whose The Spiritual Exercise was a primer on how to find God. Pope Paul III (r.1534-1549) called the council of Trent, which met from 1545 to 1563; its final report reaffirmed traditional Catholic doctrine.

It was a violent century. In France, 3,000 Protestants, or Huguenots, were massacred on Saint Bartholomew’s Day, 1572. Henry III, a Catholic, was assassinated by a monk in 1589, and the Huguenot head of the Bourbon family became Henry IV (d.1610). He converted to Catholicism, reconciling the majority, and he issued the Edict of Nantes, granting religious toleration to the Huguenots: both actions were taken for political reasons. Spain’s Philip II’s authoritarian rule and persecution of Protestants led to rebellion in the Netherlands. It was crushed in the south, but not the north: the Dutch became independent in 1648.

Elizabeth (d.1603) was a moderate Protestant, whose policies satisfied most, but not the radical Puritans who wanted to rid the Church of England of Catholic-like rituals nor her exiled Catholic cousin, Mary Queen of Scots, who plotted against her and was beheaded. English seamen attacked Spanish forces in the Americas and Elizabeth supported the Dutch. In retaliation, Philip II sent a naval Armada against England in 1588. It ended in defeat for Spain.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 14

The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was an era of Western global expansion. Among the motives, economics ranked first, followed by religion, and adventure or fame, or, as the text quotes, “God, glory, and gold.” It occurred when it did because of the emergence of centralized monarchies, sufficient wealth to finance such endeavors, and new technologies such better maps and charts, more seaworthy ships, the compass and astrolabe, and knowledge of Atlantic winds.

The first to venture forth were Portugal and Spain. Portuguese ships were exploring and trading along Africa’s west coast by the mid-fifteenth century, bringing back slaves and gold. Southern Africa was rounded in 1488, and India was reached in 1498, followed by the Malay Peninsula and the Spice Islands (Indonesia). The Portuguese empire was one of trade; its population was too small to establish large colonies, but Spain had greater resources. Seeking the same Asian goal as Portugal, the Italian Christopher Columbus (d.1506), sailing for Spain, reached the Caribbean West Indies in 1492, believing it was part of Asia. It was not, and the new found land became known as the New World or America, after Amerigo Vespucci, an early geographer. Spanish conquistadors arrived on the mainland of Mesoamerica in 1519. Aztec resistance was quickly overcome thanks to assistance from other native states, gunpowder and horses, and European diseases such as smallpox, for which the native population had no immunity. In South America, the Incas were conquered by the 1530s. The natives became Spanish subjects, but were often exploited by Spanish settlers. Two viceroys (vice kings) ruled in Mexico City and Lima, Peru; Catholic missionaries, under the control of the Spanish crown, brought Christianity, including cathedrals, schools, and the inquisition, to the native population.

Although originally less prized than gold and spices, slaves became a major object of trade, and by the nineteenth century ten million African slaves had been shipped to America. Slavery was common in Africa, and the African terminus of the trade was in the hands of the Africans, but the insatiable demand for slaves led to increased warfare on that unfortunate continent. It was not until the late 1700s that slavery came under criticism in Europe.

The Dutch expelled Portugal from the Spice Islands by 1600, and in India, the British East India Company controlled the Mughal Empire by the mid-1700s. Trade with China was limited, its rulers believing the West offered nothing that China needed, and Japan gave only the Dutch even minimal trading rights. In the New World, the Dutch, French, and the British also established colonies. Eventually British North America consisted of thirteen colonies. France established an empire in Canada, but its French population remained small.

In Europe, a commercial revolution led to integrated markets, joint-stock trading companies, and banking and stock exchange facilities. Mercantilist theory posited that a nation should acquire as much gold and silver as possible, there must be a favorable balance of trade, or more exports than imports, and the state would provide subsidies to manufactures, grant monopolies to traders, build roads and canals, and impose high tariffs to limit imports.

The impact of European expansion was mixed. In the Americas, the native culture was largely destroyed and a new multiracial society evolved. That was less true in British America, which became mainly European in population and culture. The Columbian exchange saw Europeans bringing horses, cattle, sugarcane, wheat as well as disease and gunpowder to the New World and adopting the potato, maize (corn), and chocolate in turn. Native cultures were least affected in Asia, particularly in Japan and China. Missionaries, mostly Catholic, were mainly successful in the New World, and within Europe, imperial rivalries could lead to war.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 15

The seventeenth century experienced economic recession and population decline as well as continued religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants. The breakdown of community and the growth of a more individualistic ethic resulted in a world of greater uncertainty. One reflection of anxieties was an epidemic of witchcraft accusations, usually against women.

Protestant and Catholic animosities remained a prime cause for war, notably the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). There were also national and dynastic rivalries such as those between the Bourbon kings of France and the Habsburgs of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. By the end, religious convictions had become secondary to secular political ambitions in public affairs. The Peace of Westphalia gave the German princes the right to determine the religion of their domains, France gained territory, Spanish power declined, and the Habsburg authority as German emperors was diminished. Conscript standing infantry armies became the norm.

The century is known as the age of absolutism or the age of Louis XIV, although no seventeenth century ruler had the power of modern totalitarian dictators. Monarchs justified their absolutist claims by divine right–God had chosen kings to rule. Louis XIV (r.1643-1715), the Sun King, was the model for other rulers. His palace of Versailles symbolized his authority, where the aristocracy was entertained and controlled by ceremony and etiquette. Louis revoked his grandfather’s Edict of Nantes, and he fought four costly wars, mainly to acquire lands on France’s eastern borders. The Hohenzollern rulers of Brandenburg-Prussia became kings. Austrian power waned in the empire but it gained lands in the east and in Italy. Russia’s Peter the Great (r.1689-1725) attempted to westernize Russia, especially militarily, and built a new capital, St. Petersburg, to be his window on the west. The last major invasion by the Ottoman Empire into central of Europe resulted in its defeat in 1683.

In Poland, the Sejm, or parliament, dominated by nobles and large landholders, controlled the state, but within the Sejm, a single negative vote vetoed the wishes of the majority, a prescription for continual chaos. Conversely, the oligarchic Dutch republic was a success. The States General was controlled by wealthy merchants, many from Amsterdam with its population of 200,000. During wars, the military leader, or stadholder, gained power.

The Stuart kings of Scotland, advocates of divine right absolution, became the rulers of England in 1603. Religious disputes occurred within Protestantism, between the Church of England and Puritan reformers. Civil war between Charles I (r.1625-1649) and Parliament led to the creation of a republic, the Commonwealth. The monarchy was restored under Charles II (r.1660-1685). Parliament’s Test Act required worship in the Church of England to hold office. James II (r.1685-1688), a Catholic, suspended the law, and his Protestant daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange, the Dutch stadholder, invaded. Before ascending the throne they accepted the Bill of Rights, limiting royal power. John Locke (d.1704) justified the Glorious Revolution, claiming that government is created by a social contract to protect the natural rights of life, liberty, and property, and if it fails to do so, there is a right of revolution.

In art, Mannerism, with its emotional and religious content, was followed by the Baroque, which used dramatic effects to convey religious and royal power, which in turn gave way to French Classicism. Rembrandt (d.1669) made it the golden age of Dutch painting. It was also a golden age of theater with England’s Shakespeare (d.1616), Spain’s Lope de Vega (d.1635), and France’s Racine (d.1699) and Moliere (d.1673).

CHAPTER SUMMARY 16

There was an interest in nature, “God’s handiwork,” in the Middle Ages, but the world was seen through a theological prism, relying on a few ancient authorities, particularly Aristotle. Other ancient authors were rediscovered in the Renaissance, and its artists made use of science, mathematics, and nature in portraying the real world. New technologies also contributed. The quest for scientific truths was often combined with a belief in magic and alchemy.

From the Scientific Revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries came a new cosmology. Aristotle and Claudius Ptolemy had posited a geocentric universe, with the fixed earth in the center and crystal spheres moving around it in perfect circular orbits. The inner crystal spheres were the heavenly bodies (the moon, planets, and fixed stars), and the outer was the God’s Empyrean Heaven. But it was difficult to reconcile the Ptolemaic system with actual astronomical observations until Nicolaus Copernicus (d.1543) theorized a heliocentric or sun-centered universe. Johannes Kepler (d.1630) discovered that planetary orbits were elliptical and that a planet’s speed is variable, thus destroying the idea of perfect circular orbits.

Galileo Galilei (d.1642), using the new telescope, discovered the moon’s craters, moons of Jupiter, and sunspots; the universe was not perfect and unchanging as the Aristotelian system had claimed. Galileo was condemned by the Catholic Church, which feared a cosmology where humanity was no longer at the center of the universe and where God’s heavens were material. In his Principia, Isaac Newton (d.1722) put forth mathematical proofs to support his universal law of gravitation: the entire universe is a mechanistic entity, operating though mathematical laws.

There were advances in medicine. Galen, the ancient Greek physician, claimed that there were two separate blood systems and that the body was made up of four humors, imbalances between them leading to disease. Paracelsus (d.1541) argued that disease was caused by chemical imbalances and could be cured by chemicals. Andreas Vesalius (d.1564) used anatomical dissection, discovering that Galen was often incorrect. The discovery a single system of blood that circulates through veins and arteries was made by William Harvey (d.1657).

In spite of gender discrimination, the lack of formal educational opportunities, and the assumption that females were inferior, many women made contributions to the Scientific Revolution, including Margaret Cavendish (d.1673), Maria Sibylla Merian (d.1717) in her study of insects and plants, and the astronomer Maria Winkelmann (d.1720).

The Scientific Revolution led to doubt. Rene Descartes (d.1650) questioned all that he had learned and began again. What he could not doubt was his own existence–I think therefore I am–truth relies upon reason. Mind and matter differed; the mind could only achieve knowledge of the material world through reason and mathematics. Francis Bacon (d.1626) contributed the scientific method or the inductive method, where a study of the particular would lead to correct generalizations. To “conquer nature in action” was Bacon’s goal.

Knowledge of the new science was spread through universities, royal patronage, scientific societies, and scientific journals. The Scientific Revolution was more than merely intellectual theories. Its appeal was also to non-scientific elites because of its practical implications in economic progress and profits and in maintaining the social order, including the waging of war.

Traditional religious beliefs were challenged. Benedict de Spinoza (d.1677) argued that humanity–the entire universe–was part of God, was God, in a philosophy of pantheism. Blaise Pascal (d.1662) claimed that Christianity was not contrary to reason, that reason and emotions were inseparable. Ultimately, his faith was in the human heart, not the rational mind.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 17

The eighteenth century was the age of the Enlightenment, an era when intellectuals, known as philosophes, wished to apply the scientific method with its reason and rationality to the challenges of society. The result would be progress and improvement in the human condition. The findings of the scientific revolution reached a wider audience through the works of numerous popularizers. Travel books increased the awareness of different cultures: some glorified the so-called “natural man” as superior to the civilized European, others admired Chinese civilization. Newton’s scientific laws became a paradigm for discovering natural laws, and John Locke’s tabula rasa, or blank sheet, indicated that reason and sense experience could create a better world.

A cosmopolitan group, the philosophes used reason to improve society. State censorship was overcome by having works published in Holland or writing about the Persians when they really meant French society, as did the baron de Montesquieu (d.1755). His The Spirit of the Laws praised the system of checks and balances and separation of powers that he believed were the essence of the British political system, an important concept of the United States Constitution. Voltaire (d.1778) attacked the intolerance of organized religion, and many philosophes adopted Deism with its mechanistic god and a universe operating according to natural laws.

Denis Diderot (d.1784) compiled a multi-volume Encyclopedia, a compendium of Enlightenment ideas. David Hume (d.1776) advocated a “science of man.” In economics, the Physiocrats rejected mercantilism in favor of the laws of supply and demand and laissez-faire, as did Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (d.1778), like Locke, believed in the social contract theory, arguing that society must be governed by the general will. In claiming that in education children should follow their instincts–reason was not enough–he was a precursor of Romanticism. Many of the philosophes had traditional attitudes towards women, but Mary Anstell (d.1731) and Mary Wollstonecraft (d.1797) argued for the equality of the sexes and the right of women to be educated. The Enlightenment appealed mostly to the urban middle classes; it passed the peasants by. Its ideas were discussed in Parisian salons, coffeehouses, reading clubs, lending libraries, and societies like the Freemasons.

In art, the lightness and curves of the Rococo replaced the Baroque. In classical music there were major development in the opera, oratorio, sonata, concerto, and the symphony by Johann Sebastian Bach (d.1750), George Frederick Handel (d.1759), Franz Joseph Haydn (d.1809), and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (d.1791). In England, the novel became a new literary form. Historical writing included economic, social, and cultural events and not just past politics, but dismissed religious subjects as mere superstition and barbarism. There was an increase in the reading public with books, magazines, and newspapers. Elite private schools emphasized the Greek and Latin classics, but new middle class education stressed modern languages and other relevant subjects. The theories of Cesare Beccaria (d.1794) and others contributed to a decline in the use of torture and capital punishment.

There was a separation between popular culture and the culture of the elites, although the rate of literacy was rising among the majority, in part because of an increase in primary education. State churches, traditional and conservative, were the norm. There was some gain in religious toleration for minorities including the Jews, although anti-Semitic attitudes continued. Popular religious movements appealed to the non-elites. Pietists in Germany sought a deeper personal relationship with God, and in England, John Wesley (d.1791) led a revival movement among the common people. It was a century of both change and tradition.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 18

During the eighteenth century, royal authority was often justified by the service the monarch could render to the state and its people rather than by divine right. Some believed that the monarchs should have a monopoly of power in what is called “enlightened despotism” or “enlightened absolutism.” Britain’s constitutional monarchy was an alternative.

For much of the century France was ruled by Louis XV (r.1715-1774). Only five when he ascended the throne, in his maturity he proved to be weak and lazy, controlled by his mistresses and advisors. His successor was little better. Louis XVI (r.1774-1793) was unprepared, and his wife, Marie Antoinette, an Austrian princess, became a focus of anti-royal attitudes. In Britain, power was shared between kings and parliament, with the latter gaining influence. The new ruling dynasty, from Hanover in Germany, was ignorant of British traditions and incompetent, which led to a new position in government, that of the Prime Minister. Trade and manufacturing were beginning to supercede the economic power of land and agriculture.

Prussia rose to major power status under Frederick William I (r.1713-1740) and Frederick II the Great (r.1740-1786), strengthening the kingdom through an efficient bureaucracy and a larger army. Frederick the Great was in the model of an enlightened despot: he reformed the laws, allowed religious toleration and considerable freedom of speech and the press, but he also increased the army to 200,000. In the Austrian Empire, Empress Maria Theresa (r.1740-1780) centralized the government and Joseph II (r.1780-1790) abolished serfdom, reformed the laws, and granted religious toleration, but his reforms did not outlast his reign. Russia’s Catherine II the Great (r.1762-1796) also instituted reforms, but they favored the landed nobility rather than the peasants and serfs. Russia gained territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and Poland, and the latter disappeared from the maps, partitioned among Prussia, Russia, and Austria. In Italy, Austria replaced declining Spain as the paramount power.

War was endemic, with national interests and dynastic concerns prevailing in a system guided by the balance of power. The mid-century War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years War (1756-1763) were fought not only in Europe but also in North America and India. Frederick the Great was the instigator, desiring Austrian Silesia, but Britain was the true victor, driving France from Canada and India, and creating a world-wide empire. Standing armies were the norm, and with religious passions more muted, wars were less ideological.

The population grew, mainly as the result of a declining death rate and improvements in agriculture thanks to a warmer climate, better livestock, improved soil fertility, and new crops such as the potato. Paper money or banknotes compensated for the dearth of gold and silver, and institutions such as the Bank of England mobilized the wealth of the kingdom through credit and loans. The seeds of the industrial revolution were planted, notably in the textile industry where new technologies transformed the manufacture of cotton cloth.

The patriarchal family remained the core of society. Late marriages limited the birthrate, but there was considerable illegitimacy. 85 percent of the population were peasants, freer in the west than the east, but still facing many legal obligations. The nobility were 2 or 3 percent. Their large country estates defined their life style, but anyone with sufficient wealth could generally enter their ranks. The Grand Tour also defined aristocratic life: sons of the elite traveled widely in search of culture and education. Townspeople were a small minority except in Britain and the Dutch Republic; London had a population of 1 million, Paris half that. Urban mortality rates were high and poverty widespread, with prostitution and begging the means of survival for many.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 19

An era of revolutions began with the American Revolution, justified ideologically by Locke’s social contract and natural rights philosophy. The Constitution of 1787, with its Bill of Rights, provided a strong central government with a separation of power between the three branches. Its affect in Europe was immense: Enlightenment ideals could become reality.

But there were other causes for the French Revolution, such as the legal inequality of the three Estates of the clergy, the aristocracy, and commoners, who were the vast majority. In 1788, the government, facing financial collapse, summoned the Estates-General for the first time since 1614. Assembling at Versailles in May 1789, it deadlocked whether to vote as estates or by head. The Third Estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly, an illegal act which Louis XVI failed to repress, in part because of rural and urban uprisings, notably the capture of the Bastille prison in Paris on July 14. In August, the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen with its natural rights philosophy, and in October, the women of Paris walked to Versailles and forced the king to accompany them back to the city.

The constitution of 1791 subordinated the monarch to the Legislative Assembly. All were citizens, but only citizens who paid taxes had the vote. The lands of the Catholic Church were nationalized and the church placed under civil control. The regime faced opposition from the church, some aristocrats, and conservatives in general, but also from those who demanded even more revolution, such as the Jacobins. Louis’ fellow European monarchs were also opposed, and the result was war in April 1792. In reaction to early military defeats the revolution entered into a more radical stage, abetted by the Paris Commune of artisans and merchants. A republic was proclaimed and the ex-king, Louis XVI, was executed in January 1793.

To meet the domestic and foreign threats, the Committee of Public Safety was given dictatorial power. Under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, it raised an army motivated by national patriotism rather than dynastic loyalties. Revolutionary courts were created to ferret out those not sufficiently supportive of the revolution, and 50,000 were executed during “the Terror.” Price controls were placed upon food and other necessary items and slavery was abolished. Notre Dame Cathedral was designated the Temple of Reason and a new revolutionary calendar was adopted eliminating Sundays and church holidays. But in July 1794, the National Convention turned against Robespierre, who was quickly executed. A new government headed by a five-member Directory was established which satisfied neither the radicals nor the royalists, and in 1799, the Directory was overthrown and the Consulate established.

An outsider from Corsica, revolution and war gave Napoleon Bonaparte his opportunity. A controversial figure, he was more the enlightened despot than the democratic revolutionary. He made peace with the papacy on his terms, and his Civil Code guaranteed equality, though less so for women. In 1804 he crowned himself Emperor. His armies conquered much of the continent but his empire did not last. In June 1812, he invaded Russia with 600,000 troops, but ultimately the French were forced to retreat. National revolts, a reaction to French occupation armies, broke out, and Napoleon abdicated in 1814. He briefly returned to power but was defeated at the battle of Waterloo in 1815, and sentenced to exile on the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died in 1821. His shadow hung over Europe for decades.

At the end, order had triumphed over liberty, and the victors were the propertied classes. However, the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity inspired future generations, and the citizen nationalism created in France led to the development of modern nationalism elsewhere.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 20

The Industrial Revolution was one the transforming events in world history. Britain was in the forefront because of several advantageous circumstances. An agricultural revolution had increased the quantity of foodstuffs thus lowering the costs and a population increase supplied a surplus of labor for the new industrial technologies. Britain was a wealthy nation with capital for investment, and unlike in some continental countries, profit was a legitimate goal. Coal and iron were abundant, and a transportation revolution created a system of canals, roads, bridges, and later, steam-powered railroads. Parliament had established a stable government where property, one of Locke’s natural rights, was protected. Finally, Britain was the world’s major colonial power with access to overseas markets. The cotton industry led the way because of new technologies such as the spinning jenny and power loom. Most significant was the steam engine, perfected by James Watt (d.1819). London’s Great Exhibition of 1851 showcased to the world Britain’s industrial might.

Continental industrialization was delayed because of a lack of transport, the existence of internal tolls, less sympathetic governments, and the upheavals of the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars. Continental nations made use of British technology and artisans until they established schools to train their own engineers and mechanics. Unlike Britain’s laissez-faire approach, continental industrialization was subsidized by governments the construction of railroads, establishing technical schools, and excluding cheaper British goods through tariffs. By 1860, the United States was also well along the road of industrialization.

In the non-western world industrial development was much slower, in part because it lacked the social-economic-political structures of the West, but also because Britain and other colonial powers prevented the growth of local industries in order to maintain a market for their manufactured goods: colonies were to produce raw materials and purchase industrial products.

The birthrate declined but the population increased because of a reduction in epidemics and wars and an increase in the food supply. Overpopulation, particularly in rural areas, led to disaster, such as in the potato famine in Ireland that led to the death of a million persons between 1845 and 1851. Cities grew dramatically: London grew from one million in 1800 to 2.35 million in 1850. Urbanization was slower on the continent, and until the twentieth century most workers were still engaged in agriculture. Urban living conditions were often horrendous and most cities lacked any semblance of sanitary facilities.

The new middle-class consisted of manufacturers and bankers. Even members of the traditional aristocracy became industrial entrepreneurs. Another new class was the working class. The work environment, especially in the factories, was dreadful: long hours, unsafe conditions, and child labor was the norm. Laws were passed, in Britain known as the Factory Acts, in the attempt to improve factory conditions, initially for women and children. Whether there were improvements in general living standards is difficult to determine. Statistics suggest that there was an increase in real wages, but miserable living and working conditions balanced off the gains. Labor unions were formed to improve wages and conditions but with limited success. Workers sometimes protested by destroying the factories and machines, as did the Luddites in England. England’s Chartist movement petitioned Parliament, demanding reforms, but the politicians rejected their demands. In summary, the Industrial Revolution radically transformed western civilization and then the rest of the world–politically, economically, socially–for good and for ill.

CHAPTER SUMMARY 21

One of the many “isms” of nineteenth century was conservatism. For conservatives, society and the state, not the individual, was paramount, in a world to be guided by tradition. The victors over Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna, forming the Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Its guiding principle was “legitimacy,” or monarchical government, to be maintained by a balance of power. A new German Confederation replaced the Holy Roman Empire. The Quadruple Alliance became the Quintuple Alliance with the admittance of France.

Acting as the Concert of Europe, the major powers intervened to uphold conservative governments. However, Britain, seeking new markets, opposed intervention when Spain’s Latin American colonies declared their independence. Britain was under conservative Tory rule until 1830 despite economic protests and demands for electoral reform. The Bourbons returned to France with Louis XVIII (1814-1824) and Charles X (1824-1830). Bourbon Spain and Italy remained under conservative rule. The reform hopes of German students and professors was negated by the repressive measures of the Carlsbad Decrees. Order was maintained in multi-ethnic Austria, and in Russia a reform movement was crushed in 1825.

Liberalism grew out of the Enlightenment and the era of Revolutions. Freedom was the aim, both in politics and in economics; the state should have no responsibilities except in defense, policing, and public works construction. Natural rights and representative government were essential but most liberals limited voting to male property owners. Nationalism, with its belief in a community with common traditions, language, and customs, also emerged from the French Revolution, threatening the status quo in divided Germany and Italy and the multi-ethnic Austrian Empire. Utopian socialists envisioned cooperation rather than competitive capitalism, and voluntary communities were established and government workshops suggested.

In 1830, an uprising in France led to a constitutional monarchy headed by Louis-Philippe (1830-1848), supported by the upper middle-class. Belgium split off from the Netherlands, but national uprisings in Poland and Italy failed. In Britain, the franchise was widened to include the upper middle-classes, and free trade became the norm. The great revolutionary year was 1848. France’s Louis-Philippe fled into exile and the Second Republic was established with universal manhood suffrage, but conflict developed between socialist demands and the republican political agenda. A unified Germany was the aim of the Frankfurt Assembly, but it failed. In Austria, liberal demands of Hungarians and others were put down. In Italy, there were uprisings against Austrian rule and a republic was proclaimed in Rome, but conservatives regained control.

To attain an ordered society, civilian police forces were created, such as London’s “bobbies.” Urban poverty was addressed through workhouses and technical institutes to teach productive trades. Sunday schools were established and churches campaigned against gambling and prostitution. In prisons, the incarcerated would be reformed through work or by isolation.

Romanticism, a reaction against Enlightenment reason, favored intuition, feeling, and emotion. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote a popular novel about a youth who committed suicide for love. The brothers Grimm collected folk tales, and the Middle Ages inspired Sir Walter Scott. Mary Shelley and Edgar Allan Poe wrote about the bizarre and Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord George Byron were notable poets. Nature was often the subject in William Wordsworth’s poetry and the paintings of Caspar David Friedrich and J.M.W. Turner. In music, Ludwig von Beethoven and Hector Berlioz were major figures. Religious Romanticism was to be found in Catholicism’s medieval heritage and in Protestant revival movements.

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