Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries

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Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries

Background to Civilization -- the development of homo sapiens sapiens before the Neolithic Revolution. Our species emerges in about 100,000 BCE, probably in East Africa, competes with Neanderthals, eliminates them; humans live in small communities where life is uncertain but simple and relatively egalitarian. This is to change with the Neolithic Revolution.
The Neolithic (Agricultural) Revolution, c. 8000 BCE -- the beginning trappings of civilization, e.g., a technological revolution (pottery, bronze tools, the wheel, etc.) in which humans settled down, began to live in cities, and invented agriculture and animal husbandry. Occurred in the Ancient Near East and spread to other areas..
What are the ingredients of 'civilization?' Urban (importance of commercial centers, capitals and administrative centers), complex and stratified (advanced division of labor leads to radical inequality among the sexes and classes), literate (starts off as record-keeping and then used in religion), things of the mind and spirit, including painting, sculpture, monumental architecture, epic poetry, etc.

Development of Civilization in Mesopotamia
Why did it happen in Mesopotamia,/Sumer? All the early civilizations occurred in river valleys -- water, transportation, fertile ground, long growing season. Obviously requires organization to put the water to good use.
Began with Sumerian city-states, which fell to Semitic (Akkadian) invaders after a few centuries. The perils of disunity; the nomads enter the civilized areas. Hammurabi the most famous of all Semitic kings, largely because of his law code. Living around 1700 BCE, his capital was at Babylon.
Mesopotamia was literate -- cuneiform: wedge-shaped characters on clay tablets which after a while are baked to make them last longer. A pictographic writing system (similar in principle to the Chinese, but unlike the phonetic Phoenician system). Used in the beginning for record keeping, but soon turned to religious and literary purposes. The cuneiform system was used by successive nations in this period to express their language.
The famous code of Hammurabi was found on a stele by 19th century archeologists. Hammurabi protested much that he sought to protect the weak and the poor as well as the rich and powerful.
Mesopotamian society was hierarchic with three castes and great inequalities. There was a significant mercantile establishment that conducted trade with other parts of the Near East. Agriculture was the main economic activity. The legal code showed some signs of humanitarian fairness (e.g., the prevalence of fines instead of harsher punishments), but was basically harsh, employing the 'eye-for-an-eye' principle. Women were primarily domestic creatures and second-class citizens, but the Code of Hammurabi does discuss their rights extensively and gives them some guarantees.
Religion is the rather typical anthropomorphic polytheism of the ancient world; the main gods stood mainly for big natural forces. Mesopotamian religion is quite pessimistic, perhaps reflecting the warfare and natural disasters common to the region (compare the much more favorable climacitc conditions in Egypt). In the Flood Story from Gilgamesh Enlil sends the waters because earth people are making so much noise that he can't sleep at night (compare to Bible where God is angry at the Hebrews because they have misbehaved ethically and broken the covenant). In "Lament for Ur" Enlil sends disasters to oppress Ur, but with no indication of why; the text says that he "hates" Ur. There is no, or little, idea of an afterlife: in the epic Gilgamesh seeks eternal life, but is finally told that there is no such thing. Death is dark, dank, inert; if there is some survival after death, it appears it would be better to be dead.

The Ancient Civilization of Egypt
Brief discussion of the NOVA website on the Internet. The author argues that the pyramids were built by native Egyptians using their own labor, architects and technology; it is not necessary to posit unknown civilizations, etc. that mysteriously constructed these great monuments. The author has also discovered the remnants of bakeries and fish-processing plants that prepared "loaves and fishes" for the Egyptian laborers drafted to work on the pyramids.
Egyptian geography was kind to Egypt. The gentle flooding of the Nile brought water and nutrients to the soil on an annual predictable schedule. Enormous amounts of warm weather and sunshine making for a long growing season. The Nile was an effective superhighway uniting Upper and Lower Egypt; a boat's progress upstream (south) enabled by northerly winds. Egypt was relatively isolated from exterior threats thus contributing to the famous stability and continuity of Egyptian civilization.
The rough chronology of Egyptian history: 1) the Old Kingdom in the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE; 2) the Middle Kingdom in the first part of the 2nd millennium BCE; 3) the New Kingdom in the second part of the 2nd millennium BCE; 4) various periods of foreign domination culminating in the Hellenistic Ptolemies and Cleopatra. The Romans take over in the first century BCE, followed by the Arabs in the 7th century CE.
The Old Kingdom is the classical period of Egyptian history. The pharaoh reigned supreme over the land; he was a god himself and the key to a good relationship with the major gods. Egypt was administered by an effective bureaucracy (look at the pyramids!), was primarily an agricultural economy, and was a hierarchical society with the bulk of the population being serfs under the rule of their landlords and who owed labor service to the state. Egypt's form of writing was hieroglyphics that was used first for religious incantations but evolved into a general writing system. Like cuneiform it was originally pictographic. Modern archeologists were first able to decipher old hieroglyphics with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone by French archeologists in Egypt in 1799. Later versions of Egyptian writing, known as hieratic and then demotic, usually appeared on papyrus rolls.
Ancient Egyptian religion was, like Mesopotamia's, polytheistic. Re, the sun disc, was the chief god. The story of Isis and Osiris points out 1) the presence of romantic relations between the sexes in Egyptian society, and 2) a pervasive search for immortality in this culture. Osiris becomes the god of the Underworld after his "resurrection" by his wife. The cult of Isis becomes very popular in the Roman Empire, and is perhaps a transition to adherence to Christianity.
In the Old Kingdom the pharaoh and the very rich were able to attain eternal life by going through elaborate funerary and burial rituals so as to identify themselves with Osiris. This was particularly important for the pharaoh since Egypt needed an advocate in the afterlife. Mummi-fication, incantations, amulets, scarabs, wall paintings, etc. were all important to achieve eternal life. The mummy must be preserved since the spiritual ka must have a physical one to reside in in the afterlife; the mummy should also physically resemble the dead person, and preferably wall paintings should include the facial features of the dead. The funeral chamber should be equipped with wall paintings and other artworks that provide the deceased with the necessities and pleasures of life; suitable prayers and incantations should be said to ease the deceased's passage to the afterlife. Security of the burial chamber was of course indispensable; grave robbers were common even in ancient Egypt.
There was little ethical content to the Old Kingdom formula for eternity, but in the New Kingdom good behavior was considered indispensable: souls recently died appeared before the Judge of the Dead and established that they had been morally good in their lifetimes.
Egyptian sculpture was very famous and influential. It had elements of realism, but the formulaic, stylized characteristics stand out. The statue of Menkaure and his wife is stiff, formal and frozen (unlike "natural" Greek sculpture). The iconography of painted subjects often included three simultaneous views in one depiction of a human subject, presumably to facilitate the ka's recognizing the person.
The New Kingdom was a time of change, at least more than usual in Egyptian history. Famous rulers include Hathshepsut (Egypt's only queen and the builder of a spectacular funerary temple not far from the Valley of the Kings), and Ramses II, the great conqueror of the 13th century BCE. Major changes:
1) Egypt acquired an Empire, all the way from Syria and Palestine and up the Nile River to Nubia. New military technology (bronze and wheeled chariots) is introduced. It is in this period that the Hebrews are brought as slaves to Egypt.
2) The power of the priest caste is greater than in the Old Kingdom, as witnessed by the great temple complexes at Thebes and Luxor (these were not burial chambers, but specialized buildings for the worship of the gods). Pharaohs and others abandon the pyramids as too expensive and insecure, and instead bury (using more or less the same rites) in underground chambers carved in the cliffs of the Valley of the Kings.
3) Akhnaton tries religion experiment in the 14th century BCE -- worship of the sun disc (Aton), who is essentially the only God. An interesting experiment in monotheism that did not outlast the life of the pharaoh; the old rites and priests were restored under the reign of his successor, Tutankhamon, famous mainly because of the "good" fortune of having his tomb discovered and raided by the English archeologist Carter in the 1920's.

Ancient Civilization in India
Be familiar with the essential geography of India: its extent; the Ganges and Indus Valleys; the Deccan Plateau, the island of Sri Lanka; the monsoon climactic pattern in East India; India as unified more as social and cultural whole rather than politically; the present-day religious divisions of India.
The enigma of the Harappan Civilization in the Indus Valley: passed through the Agricultural Revolution about 6500 BCE, and then to civilization by the 3rc millennium BCE. Western archeologists did not discover any remains until the 1920's. The civilization seems in many ways similar to Sumer. Agricultural economy, walled cities, autonomous city-states that traded and probably warred among themselves. Two major cities -- Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
Harappa apparently went though a period of decay in the 2nd millennium BCE, and was progressively overrun by the Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-European tribes (origins around the Black Sea) who migrated to areas such as Ireland, France, Germany, Italy and Greece in this period. The Aryans were relatively light-skinned and established themselves as a kind of elite over the dark-skinned native peoples, sometimes called Dravidians (descended from the Harappans?). The peoples of southern India remained more dark-skinned. The Aryans brought their chiefs (rajas) who often coalesced larger political units under maharajas. They brought iron implements and turned the Ganges Valley into one of the great fertile regions of world agriculture.
The true Aryans had very little to do with the Aryan racial theories advanced by Nazis and other European and North Americann racists in the 19th and 20th centuries.
The Mauryan Empire was created by Chandragupta Maurya at the end of the 3rd century BCE. It was quite despotic in structure with a large army and bureaucracy. The Mauryans followed the Hindu practice of ruling benevolently in the interests of their people. Most of the information we have about his reign comes from the Greek writer Megasthenes. The Greeks love to investigate and write!
The caste system in ancient India is a particularly rigid version of ancient hierarchical societies. Much of it is based on color distinctions between upper caste Aryans and lower caste Dravidians. The four main castes (brahmins, kshatriya, vaisya, sudras, and untouchables, the last of which is not really part of the caste system) are rigorously separated, not eating together, not intermarrying, performing assigned economic functions, etc. The Untouchables perform the worst jobs and are true outcasts. (In the 20th century Mohandas Gandhi campaigned against the caste system. Discrimination against the untouchables was outlawed by the 1946 Indian constitution.)
Women had a particularly low status in Ancient India (always considered minors, cannot own property, etc.). Note the tradition of the sati where women are expected to sacrifice themselves on the funeral pyres of their husbands. Codified by the Law of Manu.

The Ramayana provides opportunity for class discussion. The discussion focused on four topics. 1) Rama as the "typical" Indian hero. He was a great warrior, but also had important civilian virtues such as conscientiousness, concern for the well-being of his subjects, fidelity to his word, a certain amount of prudence.... He does make some mistakes (carelessly allowing Sita to be kidnapped, unjustly accusing Sita of infidelity, etc.), but they are always corrected, and he appears to learn from them. 2) Divine and mortal in the world of Indian myth. The two are thoroughly mixed (contrast with modern secular assumptions of western society). The world in peopled with devils. Human and divine natures are often mixed as in the case of Rama (avatar of Vishnu) and Sita. Combat takes place with supernatural weapons, incantations, mantras, etc. If someone appears to you, you always ask the question of whether it is a supernatural illusion. 3) The status of women. In general women should remain in the private sphere, stay at home. They are powerful because of their influence over men (men don't resist female beauty); they are dangerous because of their willfulness and must be resisted. Many of the bad decisions made by men in the story are because of the influence of women such as Kaikeyi and Soorpanaka (she is an asura). Sita is the ideal of the woman, beautiful, sensible, restrained, virtuous, domestic and faithful. 4) Every person in the story is subject to dharma, his duty, his own moral code (which in Hindu tradition can vary from caste to caste). The story is fascinated with moral debate of which there are several; characters stop fairly often to discuss what is right, wrong or proper; no one seems to have any compunction about speaking out on important subjects, e.g., whether it was proper for Rama to have killed Vali. The story is a strong melodrama -- the good guys are clearly separated from the bad guys, and the former win in the long run; the story has a happy ending; even the evil characters tend to repent from their evil ways when they are dying.

Indian Religion has had a particularly powerful impact on the world. Yoga, vegetarianism, and Zen Buddhism are quite popular in contemporary USA.
Hinduism is the original religion that grew out of the experience following the Aryan invasion. Its classic texts are the Vedas and the Upanishads. There was a great reform flux in Hinduism about the time of Siddhartha (6th century BCE). It is very complex and constantly changing shape (e.g., just who are the chief gods in the Indian pantheon?). It is polytheistic, the main gods often being Brahman (creation), Vishnu (preserver), and Siva (destroyer). It has two sets of practices for ordinary Indians; 1) the way of sacrifice: accept success and comfort in the world and satisfy the gods with animal and other sacrifices; the priests are very important for knowing what you need to do to attain salvation; 2) asceticism, kind of the opposite extreme: deny oneself all pleasure of life -- sex, meat, comfort, etc., even some forms of self-mutilation. Mostly brahmins are active here. Modern-day yoga comes out of asceticism, although self-mutilation was not the norm among ascetics.
Hinduism believes in reincarnation, i.e., the individual soul (atman) may move up the ladder of creation to final fulfillment, union with Brahman. The scale more or less corresponds to the different ranks of the caste system, with animals listed below (the most exalted animal is the cow). At each level the individual has a dharma that is peculiar to that stage; you accumulate karma while alive; if you have good karma, you may move on to the next stage through (apparent) death and reincarnation. You eventually escape from the world to union in a "dreamless sleep" with Brahman. It may however take a long time!
Buddhism. Siddhartha Gautama, "The Buddha" founded this "religion," although he probably did not mean to found a new religion. He was dissatisfied with Hinduism, which he found too complex, too hierarchical, and too extreme. After living lives of secular enjoyment and then of extreme asceticism, he experienced "enlightenment" as a young man under a bo tree. Buddhism is probably best seen as reformed Hinduism (admittedly a rather radical one). Buddha accepted the Hindu ideas of karma, reincarnation and fulfillment, which he called nirvana. Nirvana would bring peace and serenity as individuals renounced their individuality and dependence on material things. He denied the objective existence of the individual soul, and proclaimed the individual and the material world an illusion; reality was spirit. In his Benares Sermon, he proclaimed the Four Noble Truths and the Middle Way, in which he opted for a more consistent, simpler and egalitarian religious way: as an ethic he preached renunciation without self-mutilation. Buddha did not claim to be God, but in later centuries, many of his followers did state that he was a worldly manifestation of the World Spirit.
The spread of Buddhism was sure and persistent, although sometimes slow. The Mauryan king Asoka, after spending his earlier years fighting, converted to Buddhism; thereafter, he ruled in a more public-spirited manner, and promoted Buddhism (missionaries and monasteries) throughout India. He renounced public violence, and proclaimed tolerance in his reign; all "conquests" were to be made by persuasion. He erected inscribed pillars throughout his domains to explain his values. His son carried the religion to Sri Lanka. Buddhism later spread to Asia: first to Southeast Asia (Thailand and Myanmar), and then over the Silk Road to China, where it became the quintessential Chinese religion. From China it continued to Korea and Japan, and later to Indochina. Buddhism became enrooted in India, but was never practiced by more than a small minority of the Indian population.
The Mauryan Empire split up shortly after the death of Asoka, and India returned to a 500-year period of political disunity.

Ancient China
The oldest continuous civilization (contrast with the instability of the West), although it originated at least a millennium after the older civilizations.
The geography of ancient China. Civilization originated first on the Yellow River, later spreading to the Yangtze River Valley under the Zhou Dynasty. China is relatively isolated from the rest of the world.
The mythology of the founding of China: the gifts brought by the gods Fu Xi, Shen Nung and Huang Ti.
The Shang Dynasty (c. 1700 BCE - 1100 BCE). Grew up in North China. Some speculation by archeologists that the civilization might be influenced by Indo-European invaders, whose remains have been discovered recently in Xinjiang Province. Governance was largely feudal (aristocratic) in this period. Contrast the tradition of bureaucratic central rule (typical of most phases of Chinese history) and a feudal system (government by personal relationship), which is much less effective as central government. The Shang known for their bronzes.
Overthrown around 1100 BCE by the Zhou Dynasty: a bigger state that embraces the Yangtze Valley and which decreases the power of the nobility. The state is more centralized, and the Emperor is thought to rule with the "Mandate of Heaven," (Tian Ming) by which he has responsibility to implement the laws of the universe in China. If the Emperor doesn't do a good job, he is subject to being overthrown and replaced by a ruler who will do better. The last phase of the Zhou was characterized by internal conflict, "The Era of the Warring States." The economy was prosperous: development of a merchant class (closely supervised by the state) that exported silk products along the Silk Road; invention of coinage; technological innovations such as iron plowshares and natural fertilizer; a strong tradition of public works, especially to control flooding along the rivers and to provide irrigation water.
About this time the Chinese develop their ideographic and pictographic language that soon has thousands of characters. Chinese never evolves into a phonetic system, partly because of the beauty of Chinese writing (calligraphy), but mainly because the written language is an important unifying force in China. Development of a privileged and valuable class of scribes/scholars who make up the backbone of the future Chinese bureaucracy. The high prestige of scholars and learning in traditional Chinese society.
The Hundred Schools of Ancient Philosophy. Things going poorly in the late Zhou -- the period of the "Warring States." This prompts a rethinking of the basics of ethics and political theory, and leads to the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy. These thinkers interested less in religion, theology, metaphysics, etc., and more in principles of right behavior (ethics), and political and social theory. They influence educated folk and intellectuals, and hardly at all the common people.
1) The most conservative of the schools was Legalism. The most famous proponent was Han Fei, a noble educated under the Confucian system, who advised Shi Huangdi before he became Emperor; Shi Huangdi had him executed before taking over his ideas! Legalists believed that human nature was essentially destructive, and that the only way to attain a certain level of harmony and happiness was by detailed legal codes with draconian punishments that would deter anti-social behavior. The most important political factor is doing the will of the ruler, not looking to some code of behavior.
2) By far the most popular and influential was Confucianism, developed by the great teacher Confucius in the 6th century BCE. He was a pragmatist and a moderate, and concerned primarily with secular rather than religious issues. Every individual has the duty to follow his dao (the way), which is the proper behavior for a person of that station; even the ruler must follow his dao, which was to see universal law brought down to earth. If the individual does his duty, then the family does its duty, and so on up the line to the ruler. He developed ethical values of humanity, which included compassion, empathy, the Golden Rule ("Do not do unto others as you would not have them doing unto you!") tending toward "serene repose" and "calmness of mind." He thought the state must be reformed, mainly by giving preference to the meritorious, who would dominate the state at the expense of the nobles and those of hereditary influence. The rule of merit became a key part of Chinese political tradition after Confucius. The ruler was expected to reflect the virtues of the scholar -- an enlightened educated gentleman. Confucians generally preached the value of tolerance. They stressed obedience to those in positions of authority -- children should obey their parents, peasants their lords, etc.\
3) Daoism has much less influence on ethics, social and political theory, and more on personal religion and ritual. Daoism is individualistic and anarchic. It is anti-rational and to some extent anti-social. Individuals should seek to conform to their own dao by "inaction" and a kind of spontaneous conformity with the impulses of their own nature. Daoism has certain resemblances with extreme manifestations of European Romanticism. It is later influenced by Buddhism when it makes its way into China. Daoism more or less leaves the political and social field open to Legalism and Confucianism.
Most of these religious movement have little to do with the common people, who maintain a sort of polytheism with an emphasis on honor and sacrifice to ancestors (so-called "ancestor worship").

The Qin Dynasty identified almost entirely with the rule of Qin Shi Huangdi, 221-206.
This was an attempt to set up in China a sort of totalitarian state, in which the state would dominate most areas of life. The Emperor was a sort of megalomaniac who thought he could completely dominate Chinese society through an extreme application of Legalism. He set up a highly centralized bureaucracy, and under his rule eunuchs became highly influential at the court. The state made an attempt at thought control, and the historian Sima Qian reports book burnings and other measures to control the opinions of Chinese people. Qin Shi Huangdi pursued an aggressive foreign policy pushing Chinese dominion south into Vietnam and constructing the first version of the Great Wall aimed at the nomadic horseman operating to the north. His megalomania demonstrated by his enormous tomb that was begun to be unearthed in the 1970's: so far terra cotta representations of 6000 palace guards have been uncovered with much more to come. The scale of the tomb reminds one of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. The Qin Dynasty collapsed within a couple years of the Emperor's death.
The Han Dynasty succeeded the Qin and lasted for about 400 years. This restoration of a more traditional regime was met with great relief; Chinese historians have treated this period as one of the gold ages of China. The Han maintained the Legalist framework of Qin law and administration, but did away with the thought control and persecution of dissent. Confucianism with its moderation and its concern for the public welfare was adopted as a kind of official ideology. In 165 BCE the first civil service exams were administered: henceforth, young people acquired jobs in the Chinese bureaucracy based on their knowledge of Chinese language and the classics. The Han was a time of great prosperity: many technological innovations, for example in the are of ship navigation; maintenance of the imperial expansion of the Qin; pursuit of trade with points west along the Silk Road; the population of China climbed from about 20 million to about 50-60 million. Problems set in in the last decades of the dynasty, with the Han disappearing in the 3rd century CE. Court intrigues, especially centered around the eunuchs, became a problem in the central government. The provinces saw an increasing impoverishment of the peasantry, and a rise of the influence of the nobility at the expense of the central government.
After the fall of the Han, the country entered a period of weakness and instability that lasted almost 400 years until the unification of China under the Tang in the 7th century.
The family had great importance throughout Chinese history. An exception was under the Qin, who tried to reduce the significance of the family vis-à-vis the state, but official favor was restored under the Han. The family was adopted by Confucianism as the center of its social philosophy: it was the most basic of the "five relationships" stressing filial piety and obedience. Women remain quite subordinate and domesticated in Chinese society; as the poet says, "how sad it is to be a women." (p. 86)

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Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries

Review Sheet on the civilizations of Mesopotamia

People – Sargon, Hammurabi, Nebuchadnezzar, Cyrus

Groups- Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Persians, Hebrews

Terms – cuneiform, arch, ziggurat, city-state, Code of Hammurabi, Epic of Gilgamesh, Hanging

Gardens of Babylon, monotheism, polytheism

Big Idea Questions

How did the landscape/geography affect the development of the Mesopotamian Region?
What was life like in ancient Mesopotamia?
Why are these groups important? What did they contribute to advance civilization/society?

Review Questions for Mesopotamia

1. What are the 6 geographic conditions needed for a civilization/society to settle in one place and begin to develop?

The six conditions necessary for the development of a society are:

A water source
A food source
Natural Resources
Strategic trade location
Warm climate
Natural Barriers for defense

2. For a society to grow and develop from being primitive to more advanced, there will be a continuation from basics to more advanced things. Answer the following questions based on your “Advancement of Civilization Pyramid”.

a) What is the most basic thing needed for a society to develop in one place? Why is this so important?

People need a guaranteed food and water source. People tend to settle near a water source. People then began to domesticate plants and animals to ensure they had enough to survive. When plants are domesticated, people will remain in one area to nurture and harvest their crop. This is important, because once the need of food is met, it will allow people to develop their other skills and advance.

b) What does irrigation do to help advance society?

Irrigation provides a sure supply of water to crops. It helped because irrigation led to a food surplus, which allowed people to trade with others, and have more time to develop other talents.

c) Why is having a food surplus so important to the rest of the pyramid?

A food surplus is hugely important as it allows societies to not spend all of their time and energy gathering food. A food surplus allows for trading with other societies and the led to more free time so that people could develop more advanced things in society (ex. Writing, technology, law, religion)

d) What is meant by “division of labour”? Why is it important?

Division of labour mean that people started doing specific jobs rather than trying to do everything for themselves or their family. When people work at only one type of job, they become skilled at it, more efficient and develop ways to do it better (including technology).

3. The geography of an area has a direct impact on how a society develops.

a) What was the key geographical feature that allowed the first societies of Mesopotamia to develop? Explain how this was so important for the civilization to grow and prosper.

Geography plays a huge role in how and where a society develops. The key feature for early civilizations was to be located near a fresh water source. The water source not only provides drinking water, but also transportation. The early civilizations developed in areas where the rivers would overflow their banks and deposit silt which made rich soil for growing.

b) Since the region of Mesopotamia lacked much in the way of natural resources (wood), what did the people construct their buildings from?

Mesopotamia lacked wood as a natural resource. Most buildings were made from mud bricks that were dried in the sun. (Mesopotamia video – What the Ancients did for us)

c) What one geographical condition was missing from the region of Mesopotamia? How did this affect the peoples who lived in the area?

The major condition that was missing in Mesopotamia was the lack of natural barriers for protection. There were many different groups that passed through this area and over its history, may different groups fought for control of the Mesopotamian region.

4. What does the term Mesopotamia mean?

Mesopotamia means – “Land Between the Rivers”

5. What type of government existed in the region controlled by the Sumerians? Who were its leaders? What allowed these people to become so powerful?

The Sumerians governed in a city-state. A city-state is the city and the region it controls around it. In Sumeria, the leaders were war leaders and the priests (often a combined job). The people didn’t question their rulers/priests due to the fact that the priests had such a powerful role, and were the people’s connection to the gods. You can’t question your god.

6. List 4 different groups that will come in and rule in the area of Mesopotamia.

Sumerians, Akkadians, Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Chaldeans, and eventually the Persians.

7. How does the strength and power of the leader of a group affect its success in these early empires?

When a strong leader comes to power, he can inspire and lead his/her people to great things. The strong leader can make a society great through accomplishments, military conquests and decisive leadership. We have seen that often when a strong leader dies, the strength of the society will start to decline until another group takes over. Examples – Sargon and Akkadians – when he dies the society falls very quickly.

Hammurabi and the Babylonians

Nebachadnezzar and the Chaldeans

8. What was Hammurabi’s Code?

- according to our play, why was the code created?

- what was the idea of punishment based on in the code?

- according to the play, why do people tend to follow laws/rules?

- provide an example of a rule from Hammurabi’s Code?

(This is also in your notes –so check their for more info)

Hammurabi created the code to unite their territories he conquered under one set of laws. He hoped this would unify the people.

Punishment in Hammurabi’s code was based on the idea of equivalent retaliation. If you were found guilty of a crime, the punishment would be severe to keep people from commiting the crime.

Hammurabi realized though, most people follow the laws, NOT for the fear of being caught and punished, but because they believe the law is fair. (On a test – be prepared to show how this works. Ex. Most people don’t steal, because they believe it is not right. Some laws take longer for people to follow because they may not believe in them – Ex. The cell phone while driving laws)

An example of Hammurabi’s Code is – If you were guilty of murder, you would be put to death. If you stole something, you could have your hand cut off. If a builder built a house and it collapsed and killed someone and the builder was found at fault, the builder could be killed.

9. What was the name of the Mesopotamian form or writing? What was the writing first used for? How do you think the invention of writing changed people's lives?

The writing of the Mesopotamians was called cuneiform. It was a picture writing done on wet clay tablets. It was likely used for recording information about food storage and keeping records for trade. Writing greatly changed peoples’ lives as we now have a record of past dealings in trade, a way to communicate our stories and to send messages to each other. The written language would allow for a great expansion in learning.

10. What were the contributions of the Mesopotamian societies to the advancement of civilization ? (inventions, new things, etc…). Explain how they changed the way of life of the people.

The Mesopotamian cultures contributed many things to the advancement of civilization. Written language (cuneiform) was a big development as written records could now be kept and learning expanded. The invention of the wheel allowed for the transportation of heavier objects and for horse drawn vehicles. The Mesopotamians developed a calendar that was fairly close to our calendar through the use of astronomy. Their calendar was a lunar calendar of 360 days. They also developed a number system based on the 60 number system. We still use this system in our telling of time and in the measurement of angles in a circle. They developed irrigation which allowed them to ensure that their crops had water. Other irrigation devices included the shaduf and likely the Archimedes Screw.

There are more answers for this question that I have not included off the top of my head.

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Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries

ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA & NEAR EAST

I.   ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA & NEAR EAST
A.   GENERAL REMARKS
1.   C. 4000 B.C. PEOPLE BEGAN TO MOVE IN LARGE NUMBERS INTO RIVER-WATERED LOWLANDS OF MESOPOTAMIA
2.   BEGINNING OF URBAN SOCIETY & CIVILIZATION
3.   SHIFT ACCOMPANIED BY GRADUAL INTRODUCTION OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES
a.   INVENTION OF WRITING
b.   INVENTION OF CALENDAR
c.   INVENTION OF WHEEL
4.   OUT OF THIS CIVILIZATION CAME OUR FOUNDATIONS OF
a.   LAW CODES
b.   RELIGION
c.   ASTRONOMY
d.   MATHEMATICS
e.   LITERATURE
f.   CULTURE IN GENERAL
B.   BOUNDARIES OF ANCIENT NEAR EAST
1.   MODERN DAY COUNTRIES OF
a.   IRAN
b.   IRAQ
c.   TURKEY
d.   SYRIA
e.   LEBANON
f.   ISRAEL
g.   EGYPT
h.   JORDAN
C.   WHY DID CIVILIZATION OCCUR HERE IN MESOPOTAMIA?
1.   MESOPOTAMIA - GREEK FOR LAND BETWEEN RIVERS
a.   TIGRIS & EUPHRATES RIVERS
2.   PART OF FERTILE CRESCENT
3.   EXCELLENT CLIMATE
4.   WATER AVAILABLE FOR GROWING FOOD
5.   SOIL NOT ROCKY NOR LACED WITH TREES
6.   NO RAINFALL 8 MONTHS OF YEAR
7.   TORRENTIAL SPRING SHOWERS TOO LATE TO WATER MAIN CROPS HARVESTED IN APRIL
8.   FLOODING NOT PREDICTABLE AS NILE
9.   SUMMER MONTHS UNPRODUCTIVE AS 125 DEGREES
10. PRODUCTIVITY OF MESOPOTAMIAN AGRICULTURE EXTREMELY HIGH
a.   COMPARED TO PREMODERN EUROPEAN STANDARDS
11. SOIL ALONG BANKS OF RIVERS SOME OF MOST FERTILE ON EARTH
12. COULD BE FARMED GENERATION AFTER GENERATION
a.   WITHOUT LAYING FALLOW LIKE REST OF EUROPE
13. LATER WORKERS EXCAVATED LONG CANALS TO CHANNEL WATER TO DISTANT FIELDS
14. NOT ONLY GOVERNMENTS BUT RICH PERSONS ALSO SPENT MONEY ON CANAL MAINTENANCE & BUILDING
15. AS FIELDS MOVED FROM SOFT MUCK TO HARDER GROUND
a.   SUMERIANS INVENTED PLOW

II. SUMERIANS - WHERE CIVILIZATION BEGAN
A.   WHO WERE SUMERIANS?
1.   PROBABLY ORIGINATED IN REGION EAST OR NE OF MESOPOTAMIA
2.   LANGUAGE RELATED TO ONE SPOKEN NEAR CASPIAN SEA
3.   SURPLUS OF GRAIN FAR BEYOND DAILY NEEDS
4.   SO GAVE SUMERIANS TIME TO DEVELOP NEW SKILLS, ETC.
5.   BECAME INVENTIVE
a.   ARTISANS, TRADERS, PRIESTS, SCRIBES & MERCHANTS CREATED
b.   SUSTAINED BY EFFORTS OF FARMERS
B.   POLITICAL STRUCTURE
1.   SYSTEM OF GOVT EMERGED
2.   FIRST CLANS/TRIBES THEN VILLAGES, THEN CITIES, THEN CITY-STATES
3.   RULED BY THEOCRACY - PRIEST/KING
4.   SUMER'S KINGS ESTABLISHED THEORIES OF
a.   JUSTICE
b.   RAISED ARMIES
c.   BUILT NETWORKS OF TRADE
5.   ORIGINS OF CITIES
a.   THESIS - STARTED OUT AS SHRINES OR TEMPLE -
(1) PILGRIMAGE SITES
6.   URUK - BIBLICAL ERECH IN GENESIS
a.   FIRST OF THESE CITY -STATES
b.   BECAME PROTOTYPE FOR OTHERS IN ANCIENT WORLD
c.   BY 2700 B.C. URUK INCLUDED 76 OUTLYING VILLAGES
d.   CITY ITSELF SPRAWLED OVER MORE THAN 1000 ACRES
e.   HOUSED NEARLY 50,000 PEOPLE
f.   EARLIEST EVIDENCE FOR WRITING DISCOVERED HERE
g.   CITY'S WALLS BUILT BY GILGAMESH
(1) URUK'S LEGENDARY KING
h.   REMAINED IMPORTANT RELIGIOUS CENTER
i.   ITS SHRINES EMBELLISHED CONTINUALLY BY SUCCESSIVE RULERS
7.   UR
a.   1 OF GREAT METROPOLISES OF 3RD MILLENNIUM B.C.
b.   NEAR CENTER TEMPLE COMPLEX DEDICATED TO NANNA & NINGAL
c.   SAW ZIGGURAT & CITY AS SANCTUARY
d.   COULD SEE ZIGGURAT AS BEACON FROM 20 MILES AWAY
e.   PEASANT COULD SEE THIS & BE ASSURED OF NANNA'S PROTECTION
8.   IN PEAK PERIOD OF 3RD MILLENNIUM B.C.E.
a.   SOME 40 CITIES IN SUMER & AKKAD
b.   MOST INDEPENDENT CITY-STATES
c.   DENSELY SETTLED
C.   WAR ENDEMIC - WHY?
1.   PARTLY GEOGRAPHY
a.   NO NATURAL BARRIERS TO INVASION OF BARBAROUS PEOPLE TO EAST & WEST
2.   MORE IMPORTANTLY CONFLICT BETWEEN SUMERIAN CITIES
a.   AS CITIES EXPANDED CITIZENS QUARRELED ABOUT THEIR COMMON BOUNDARIES
b.   & INCREASINGLY ABOUT DIVERSION OF WATER FROM RIVERS FOR IRRIGATION
c.   EVERY NEW CANAL UPSTREAM LESSENED AMOUNT OF WATER DOWNRIVER
d.   GIVEN IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION DISPUTE ABOUT WATER OFTEN MATTER OF LIFE & DEATH
3.   PERENNIAL HOSTILITIES CHANGED GOVERNMENT OF SUMERIANS
4.   UNTIL ABOUT 2800 B.C. COUNCILS
a.   COMPOSED OF ARISTOCRATIC ELDERS LED
b.   IN TIMES OF CRISIS SUCH AS WAR
(1) COUNCIL APPOINTED SINGLE LEADER
(a) LUGAL = BIG MAN
(2) HE LED FOR DURATION OF EMERGENCY
(3) THEN HONORED HERO RETURNED TO HIS FORMER OCCUPATION
5.   AS PEACE INTERVALS SHORTENED LUGAL TENDED TO STAY IN POWER LONGER
a.   INEVITABLY HIS MILITARY AUTHORITY EXTENDED TO ALL PHASES OF GOVERNING COMMUNITY LIFE
(1) SUPERSEDING COUNCIL OF ELDERS ORIGINALLY APPOINTED HIM
6.   WORD LUGAL CAME TO MEAN KING
7.   IN TIME ONE LUGAL AFTER ANOTHER APPOINTED HIS SUCCESSOR
a.   THUS VARIOUS DYNASTIES RULED SUMERIAN CITY-STATES
8.   POWER OF KINGS GREW TO RIVAL TEMPLES
a.   BUT CITY-STATE SOVEREIGNS CAREFUL TO MAINTAIN CORDIAL RELATIONS WITH PRIESTS
b.   BASICALLY PRIEST & RULER CUT DEAL
c.   KING TO BE DEITY 'S EARTHLY REPRESENTATIVE
(1) RULER BY DIVINE RIGHT
9.   SEMIDIVINE STATUS OF KING OF UR SANCTIFIED BY NUMBER OF RITUALS
a.   MOST NB ON NEW YEAR'S DAY
b.   KING ASCENDED IN SOLEMN PROCESSION TO TOP OF CITY'S PRINCIPAL ZIGGURAT
c.   WHERE SYMBOLIC MARRIAGE PERFORMED
(1) UNITED HIM AS SUBSTITUTE FOR 1 OF GODS
(2) TO PRIESTESS WHO REPRESENTED INANNA
(a) GODDESS OF FERTILITY
10. BUREAUCRACIES CAME INTO BEING TO HANDLE INCREASED CIVIC ACTIVITIES
a.   SOON OVERSEERS, INSPECTORS, TAX COLLECTORS & SCRIBES
D.   SARGON THE GREAT
1.   BORN ABOUT 2335 B.C.
2.   STORY LIKE MOSES OF BEING ILLEGITIMATE & PLACED IN REED BASKET
3.   FOR FIRST TIME ALL OF MESOPOTAMIA UNITED AS SINGLE NATION UNDER ONE RULER
4.   SARGON ESTABLISHED NEW CAPITAL CALLED AGADE
a.   SITE REMAINS UNKNOWN
5.   DYNASTY OF SARGON'S LASTED LESS THAN CENTURY
6.   THEN IT TOO BROKE UP WITH INTERNAL CONFLICT & INVASIONS
E.   DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING
1.   INVENTED FIRST FORM OF WRITING
a.   CUNEIFORM
2.   AS EARLY AS 3300 B.C.E. NUMERICAL NOTATION TABLETS
3.   WHEN WE FIRST SEE WRITING SYSTEM IN URUK IT IS ALREADY HIGHLY COMPLEX
a.   & HAS GREAT MANY SIGNS
4.   TO ENABLE MERCHANTS TO KEEP TRACK OF TRANSACTIONS
5.   & SO 1 GENERATION COULD PASS INFORM TO NEXT
6.   ALSO USED BY PRIESTHOOD
7.   PICTOGRAPHS EVOLVED OVER TIME
8.   FROM CONCRETE REPRESENTATION TO ABSTRACTION
9.   NEXT SCRIBES EXPERIMENTED WITH PHONETIC SYMBOLS
10. EVENTUALLY WITH 600 CHARACTERS STANDING FOR SOUNDS & IDEAS RATHER THAN CONCRETE OBJECTS
11. BY 2500 B.C. REED POINT HAD TAKEN ON TRIANGULAR SHAPE
a.   PUSHED EASILY INTO CLAY
b.   LEAVING NEAT, WEDGE SHAPED IMPRESSION
c.   MUCH LATER GAVE SUMERIAN WRITING SYSTEM NAME
(1) CUNEIFORM
(a) FROM LATIN FOR WEDGE-SHAPED
F.   LITERATURE - EPIC OF GILGAMESH
1.   OLDEST SURVIVING EPIC IN WORLD MYTHOLOGY
2.   ORIGINAL DATES FROM 2000 B.C. OR BEFORE
3.   GILGAMESH - HERO- REAL HISTORICAL FIGURE
a.   SUMERIAN KING RULED C 2600 B. C.
4.   LIKE HOMER'S ODYSSEUS HERO GILGAMESH WANDERS EARTH
5.   GILGAMESH LIKE BIBLICAL NOAH SURVIVED GREAT FLOOD
6.   AFTER FIGHTING BATTLES, SEXUALLY ABUSING WOMEN GILGAMESH SEEKS SECRET OF IMMORTALITY
7.   W/ HIS FRIEND ENKIDU
a.   GIVEN TO GILGAMESH BY GODDESS ISHTAR
(1) GILGAMESH PROMISES TO LIE W/ISHTAR
b.   AFTER ENKIDU CIVILIZED BY HARLOT
(1) IDEA WOMAN CIVILIZING INFLUENCE
8.   FROM OLD MAN & WIFE SAVED BY TAKING REFUGE IN ARK
a.   WHEN GODS DECIDED TO DESTROY WORLD BY FLOOD
9.   COUPLE SAY IMMORTALITY UNOBTAINABLE
a.   BUT DISCLOSE LOCATION OF PLANT CAPABLE OF RESTORING LOST YOUTH
10. UNFORTUNATELY AFTER GAINING PLANT GILGAMESH LEAVES IT UNGUARDED WHILE ASLEEP & SNAKE EATS IT
11. GILGAMESH FINALLY ADMITS HE SHOULD ENJOY EACH DAY AS IT COMES W/O WORRYING ABOUT TOMORROW

III. ACCADIANS OR OLD BABYLONIANS
A.   GENERAL REMARKS
1.   SEMITIC SPEAKING GROUP CAME IN & CONQUERED SUMERIANS
B.   HAMMURABI C. 1792-1750 B. C. E.
1.   REIGNED 42 YEARS
2.   CONQUERED ALL OF SUMER & AKKAD
3.   CAPITAL AT BABYLON
4.   HIS COLLECTION OF LAWS FROM ALL OVER EMPIRE
a.   HIS MOST FAMOUS LEGACY
C.   LAW CODES BEFORE HAMMURABI
1.   AS SUMERIAN SOCIETY MORE COMPLEX
a.   DEMAND FOR UNIFORM LAWS AROSE
b.   NOT ONLY FOR COMMERCIAL TRANSACTIONS
c.   BUT ALSO CIVIL & CRIMINAL CONDUCT
2.   EARLIEST COLLECTION UNEARTHED SO FAR DATES FROM REIGN OF UR-NAMMU
a.   KING OF CITY OF UR
b.   IN 21ST C. B.C.
c.   PRECEDING BIBLICAL TEN COMMANDMENTS BY ABOUT 1000 YEARS
d.   UR-NAMMU'S LAWS PRESCRIBED FINES INSTEAD OF CORPORAL PUNISHMENT OR MUTILATION AS PENALTY FOR PHYSICAL INJURY INFLICTED
D.   THE CODE OF HAMMURABI
1.   WHEREAS HAMMURABI'S CODE INFLICTED SUCH PENALTIES
a.   MUTILATION
b.   WHIPPING
c.   BURNING
2.   DESPITE SEVERITY- SPIRIT OF JUSTICE & SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY PERVADE CODE
3.   CODE HAS 2 CHARACTERISTICS
a.   1ST - LAW DIFFERED ACCORDING TO SOCIAL STATUS OF OFFENDER
(1) ARISTOCRATS NOT PUNISHED AS HARSHLY AS COMMONERS
(2) NOR COMMONERS AS HARSHLY AS SLAVES
b.   2ND - CODE DEMANDED PUNISHMENT FIT CRIME
(1) EYE FOR EYE TOOTH FOR TOOTH
(a) AT LEAST AMONG EQUALS
(2) ARISTOCRAT WHO DESTROYED COMMONER'S EYE OR SLAVE'S EYE
(a) COULD PAY FINE & NOT LOOSE HIS OWN EYE
c.   AS LONG AS CRIMINAL & VICTIM SHARED SAME SOCIAL STATUS
(1) VICTIM COULD DEMAND EXACT VENGEANCE
4.   NO PUBLIC PROSECUTORS OF DISTRICT ATTORNEYS
a.   SO PEOPLE BROUGHT OWN COMPLAINTS BEFORE COURT
5.   CONSUMER PROTECTION OR BUYER BEWARE NOT JUST MODERN IDEA
6.   MERCHANTS & BUSINESSMEN TO GUARANTEE QUALITY OF THEIR GOODS & SERVICES
7.   HOUSE BUILDERS GUARANTEED THEIR WORK WITH THEIR LIVES
8.   CARELESS WORK COULD RESULT IN COLLAPSE OF HOUSE & DEATH OF ITS INHABITANTS
9.   IF THAT HAPPENED BUILDER PUT TO DEATH
10. IF SON OF OWNER DIED THEN BUILDER'S SON KILLED
11. CODE DEALT EXTENSIVELY WITH AGRICULTURE
12. ANYONE WHO NEGLECTED CANALS RESULTING IN DAMAGED CROPS
a.   HAD TO BEAR ALL EXPENSE OF LOST CROPS
b.   THOSE WHO COULDN'T PAY FORCED INTO SLAVERY
IV. MESOPOTAMIAN SOCIETY
A.   STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY
1.   DURING 3RD MILLENNIUM 3 DISTINCT CLASSES EMERGED
a.   ARISTOCRACY OR PATRICIANS
(1) KING
(2) GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS
(3) MOST PROMINENT PRIESTS
(4) WEALTHIEST MERCHANTS & LANDOWNERS
b.   MIDDLE GROUP OR COMMONERS OR PLEBEIANS
(1) GREAT MAJORITY OF SUMERIANS
(2) FREE CITIZENS LIKE
(a) FARMERS
(b) FISHERMEN
(c) ARTISANS
(d) SCRIBES
c.   SLAVES
(1) FORCED INTO BONDAGE BECAUSE OF POLITICAL OR ECONOMIC CIRCUMSTANCES
(2) PARENTS COULD SELL THEIR CHILDREN INTO SLAVERY
(3) MAN COULD ENSLAVE HIMSELF & FAMILY TO PAY DEBTS
B.   MARRIAGE & DIVORCE CUSTOMS
1.   POLYGAMY PROBABLY OPTION FOR RICH
2.   IN PAST EVIDENCE OF POLYANDRY
a.   THOUGH RULERS CONDEMN PRACTICE
3.   MARRIAGE ARRANGED BY PARENTS
4.   BETROTHAL LEGALLY RECOGNIZED WHEN GROOM GAVE MONEY TO BRIDE'S FATHER
a.   CONTRACT SPECIFIC AMONG OTHER PROVISIONS
(1) DUTIES OF EACH SPOUSE
(2) PENALTIES HUSBAND WOULD PAY IF HE DECIDED TO DIVORCE WIFE
5.   FAMILY PATRILINEAL
6.   PROPERTY FROM FATHER TO SON
7.   HUSBAND COULD TAKE 1 OR MORE CONCUBINES
8.   DIVORCE HIS WIFE IF SHE BARREN
C.   WOMEN'S ROLE & STATUS
1.   LABOR SEEMS TO BE SEXUALLY DIVIDED
2.   COMMONERS GENERALLY ALL WORKED IN VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS
3.   MOST COMMON FOR WOMEN TEXTILE INDUSTRY
a.   EXPORTS OF FINISHED CLOTH GOODS MAJOR SOURCE OF WEALTH IN MUCH OF AREA
4.   & FOOD & BEER MANUFACTURE & DISTRIBUTION
5.   WOMEN WOVE AS JOB COULD BE INTERRUPTED
a.   SO COMPATIBLE WITH CHILD CARE
6.   WOMEN GENERALLY FROM UPPER CLASSES PRIESTESSES
a.   SOME HIGHEST OFFICIAL IN TEMPLES
7.   MOST POWERFUL PRIESTESS ENHEDUANA
a.   DAUGHTER OF SARGON
b.   FIRST HIGH PRIESTESS OF MOON GOD AT UR
c.   HIGH PRIESTESS AT TEMPLE TO INANNA AT URUK
d.   WROTE NUMEROUS HYMNS TO INANNA
8.   WOMEN'S RIGHTS UNDER SUMERIAN LAW
a.   COULD OWN PROPERTY & BUY & SELL IT
b.   ENGAGE IN BUSINESS
c.   QUALIFY AS WITNESSES IN COURT
D.   SUMERIAN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS & PRACTICES
1.   GREATLY INFLUENCING SUCCEEDING PEOPLES TO AREA
2.   SUMERIAN BELIEF ERIDU SITE OF CREATION
3.   AT LEAST 3000 DEITIES
a.   BEFORE HUMAN SHAPED - ANIMAL FORM
4.   VIRTUALLY EVERY REALM OF NATURE & HUMAN ENDEAVOR
a.   PRESIDED BY DIFFERENT DEITY
b.   PLOWS, PICKS, MOLDS FOR MAKING BRICKS, RAIN, SUN MOON,
c.   EACH SETTLEMENT HAD OWN DEITY
5.   GODS NOT EQUAL
6.   SUMERIANS BELIEVED 4 MAIN GODS
a.   HEAVEN
b.   AIR
c.   EARTH
d.   WATER
e.   1 OF THESE ALWAYS REIGNED SUPREME
7.   AT FIRST MOST POWERFUL AN
a.   RULER OF HEAVENS
b.   LATER SUPERSEDED BY ENLIL,
(1) GOD OF AIR
8.   NB WORSHIP OF NANNA, MOON GOD & HIS WIFE NINGAL
9.   CHARACTERISTICS OF DEITIES
a.   THEY COMMUNICATED THEIR WISHES TO HUMANS
(1) LETTING PRIESTS & PRIESTESSES KNOW WHAT THEY WANTED THROUGH SUCH OMENS AS
(a) SHAPE OF LIVER FOUND IN SACRIFICIAL SHEEP
10. CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGION
a.   NOT PARTICULARLY HOPEFUL RELIGION
b.   ACCORDING TO 1 SUMERIAN MYTH
(1) PEOPLE MOLDED OUT OF CLAY BY GODS
(a) FOR SOLE PURPOSE OF SERVING AS THEIR SLAVES
c.   FAILURE TO REVERE & PROPITIATE DEITIES
(1) COULD BRING CATASTROPHES
(a) FLOODS
(b) DROUGHT
(c) PESTILENCE
(d) RAIDS BY HILL TRIBES
d.   AS SUCH CALAMITIES OCCURRED FREQUENTLY
(1) PEOPLE DEVELOPED CHRONIC ANXIETY
e.   THIS MADE RELIGION POWERFUL & PERVASIVE
(1) GREATLY BENEFITTED PRIESTS & THEIR TEMPLES
11. TEMPLES USUALLY MOST PROMINENT STRUCTURES IN SUMERIAN COMMUNITIES
a.   REACHING SKYWARD IN STEPPED STRUCTURES KNOWN AS ZIGGURATS
12. FACADES DECORATED WITH BLUE GLAZED TILES
13. JUST AS CAN BE SEEN TODAY ON MOSQUES OF IRAQ
14. TEMPLES OWNED SIZABLE TRACTS OF LAND
a.   SOME PRIESTS FARMED
b.   C. 3000 B.C. TEMPLE IN CITY OF LAGASH PROVIDING DAILY BREAD & BEER RATION FOR 1200+
E.   DIET OF SUMERIANS
1.   DIET STAPLE GRAIN
a.   SOMETIMES WHEAT
b.   BUT USUALLY BARLEY
2.   BEER
a.   BARLEY PRINCIPAL INGREDIENT FOR BEER/ALE
b.   MOST POPULAR BEVERAGE
c.   SPECIAL GODDESS NINKASI
(1) MEANS LADY WHO FILLS THE MOUTH
3.   PLENTY VEGETABLES AVAILABLE
4.   AT LEAST 50 VARIETIES OF FISH FROM RIVERS
5.   CATTLE & GOATS KEPT PRIMARILY FOR MILK
a.   ALSO MADE INTO CHEESE, BUTTER, YOGURT
6.   PROBABLY WEALTHY ATE MEAT REGULARLY
a.   PROBABLY MUTTON
7.   DATE PALM
a.   DATE PALMS YIELDED ABOUT 100 POUNDS OF FRUIT PER TREE EVERY YEAR
b.   DATES
(1) EATEN FRESH
(2) DRIED FOR LATER USE

V.   OTHER CONTRIBUTIONS OF MESOPOTAMIANS
A.   ECONOMY - TRADE
1.   MERCHANT CLASS OF SUMER
a.   EQUALLY AS IMPORTANT TRAVELING MERCHANTS
2.   ALL MEANS OF CONVEYANCES USED IN TRADE
a.   RAFTS ON RIVERS
b.   DONKEY CARAVANS
c.   SAILBOATS
(1) PROBABLY ANOTHER SUMERIAN INVENTION
B.   LUNAR CALENDAR
1.   ANOTHER MOST CRUCIAL INVENTION
2.   ESSENTIAL TO BEGIN PLANTING & HARVESTING AT PROPER TIME
3.   BASED ON LUNAR MONTHS OF 28 DAYS
a.   BUT CYCLE IS REALLY 29 1/2 DAYS
4.   BUT DEVISED 6 MONTHS 30 DAYS & 6 MONTHS 29 DAYS
5.   BUT 12 LUNAR CYCLES OR MONTHS FALL 11 DAYS SHORT OF SOLAR YEAR
6.   OVER CENTURIES ADDED MONTH TO CALENDAR EVERY FEW YEARS
C.   MATHEMATICS
1.   OLD BABYLONIAN ERA C. 2000-1600 B.C.E. USED SIXTY = SEXAGESIMAL
a.   NUMBER 60, DAYS OF 24 HOURS, 60 MINUTES, 60 SECONDS
D.   INVENTION OF WHEEL
1.   PROBABLY 1ST USED FOR POTTERY MAKING
2.   SUMERIANS FIRST TO THINK OF FLIPPING POTTER'S WHEEL ON ITS SIDE & ADAPTING IT FOR TRAVEL
3.   OX OR DONKEY HITCHED TO WHEELED CART COULD PULL
a.   3 TIMES LOAD
(1) ANIMAL COULD CARRY ON ITS BACK

Source : http://web.clark.edu/afisher/HIST&126/lecture_notes/ancient_mesopotamia__near_east.doc

Web site link: http://web.clark.edu/afisher/

Google key word : Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries file type : doc

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Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries

ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

"Mesopotamia" means "the land between the rivers" or "the land between two rivers." Ancient Mesopotamia was located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in the present-day Middle Eastern country of Iraq

THE SUMERIAN CITY-STATE
Sumerians established the world's first civilization around 3500 B.C. Mesopotamia has hot dry climate and seasonal flooding. The farmers learned to control the flooding rivers and produce many different kinds of fruit and vegetable crops in that fertile land. As a result, a stable food supply existed, and the Sumerian villages evolved into self-governing city-states like Ur, Uruk, Babylon, Khorsabad…

At the centre of each city-state was a temple surrounded by courts and public buildings. Then there were houses, different according to the wealth or importance of the people. The city-state also included the fertile farming land outside the city wall. There wasn't any building stone and very little timber in Sumer, so the people constructed their homes, public buildings, and city walls out of sun-dried mud brick.

Many times city-states would war with each other because boundary disputes existed. Sometimes a city-state would attack a neighbouring city-state just to prove its strength.

THE ZIGGURAT
The ziggurat (temple-tower), made of mud bricks, housed each city-state's patron god or goddess. Only priests were permitted inside the ziggurat; as a result, they were very powerful members of Sumerian society.

CUNEIFORM
As the Sumerian city-states' wealth increased, government officials realized that an efficient method of keeping records had to be developed. Sumerian cuneiform emerged as the world's first writing system. The term cuneiform means "wedge-shaped." due to the shape of the reed pen, or stylus, that was used. The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets that would either be dried in the sun or fired in kilns to make the writing permanent.
Cuneiform was learned in Sumerian schools called edubbas, or tablet houses. Only a select group of boys were able to attend Sumerian schools. The boys were usually sons of the very wealthy.
Once a student successfully completed twelve years of schooling, he was an official scribe, or writer. This was a prestigious position in Sumerian society. Scribes were very valuable in order to maintain and improve the record keeping.

GILGAMESH
In early Sumerian history, priests were also the kings of the city-states. Gilgamesh was one of the most heroic priest-kings of this time. He was the priest-king of Uruk. The oldest written story in the world describes Gilgamesh's legendary deeds. In the story, Gilgamesh is characterized as being both human and divine.

SARGON I
Sargon I was from Akkad located in the north of Mesopotamia. When the power of the Sumerian city-states began to collapse due to their constant battling, Sargon I attacked the southern region of Mesopotamia with his armies. After conquering all the Sumerian city-states, Sargon I united them with Akkad, and created the world's first empire.

HAMMURABI OF BABYLON
Sargon I ruled Mesopotamia for approximately fifty years. When he died, the empire crumbled. The individual city-states again rose to power.
About 1800 B.C., the Amorites migrated to Mesopotamia and constructed their own city-states. One of the city-states built was named Babylon, and it was ruled by a king named Hammurabi. As Hammurabi rose to power, he began conquering the city-states of Mesopotamia.
He too, began uniting the city-states, but he was much more successful than Sargon I because he made many new reforms that improved society. For example, he improved the irrigation system, tax system... He also united the people under one religion, but the reform for which Hammurabi became renowned was his code of law. (p. 146). Hammurabi of Babylon was a great ruler; the time he reigned is called the "Golden Age of Babylon".

CONTRIBUTIONS
The ancient Sumerians created the world's first civilization where people settled together in one area known as the city-state. This is why it is the "cradle of civilization."
Another contribution is the Sumerians' creation of a writing system. Other inventions include the water clock, the twelve-month calendar based on lunar cycles, the wheel, the plough, and the sailboat. All these inventions improved the daily life of the Sumerians.

Source : http://www.historiasiglo20.org/MEC-BC/1est%20level/1%20his/Topic%202-Ancient%20Civilisations/ANCIENT_MESOPOTAMI1.doc

Web site link: http://www.historiasiglo20.org

Google key word : Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries file type : doc

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Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries

Ancient Mesopotamia

Ancient Mesopotamia was one of the most important civilizations across their time and also the first. Ancient Mesopotamia was very big it was the alluvial plain lying between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, composing parts of Iraq, and Syria and country’s near. Civilization developed in ancient Mesopotamia together with Egypt and both of them are often called “ Fertile Crescent “ the “ Fertile Crescent “ is a rich food growing area in a part of the world where most of the land is too dry and suits for farming.

Art in ancient Mesopotamia rivals a tradition that appears in the same kind of nature, art had improved a lot after a lot of improvement and correction, art became a lot more decorated, stylized and conventionalized at different time an places. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamia had art as a daily bases in every were, and anytime and because of that they improved a lot in art and architecture, and become a major thing in ancient Mesopotamia.

The beautiful and most important buildings in ancient Mesopotamia were decorated with very artistic items like tiles and also with clay nails and with colored heads that were embedded in walls. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamia were creative in their building and their building were very nice and creative, at the same time it also shows us that ancient Mesopotamia improved a lot and their building were huge and artistic.

The ancient Mesopotamians often decorated their buildings with brightly colored and colorful tiles and also cone – shaped nails, which were arranged in spectacular geometric patterns. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamia were creative in their building and at the same time they started using bright and colorful colors, and started using a very improved and helpful things which is “math’s” because they started using geometric shaped, this is a very important changing point which Mesopotamian people won’t forget. And a similar thing which happened in ancient Mesopotamia that relates to geometric shapes is Circles which is also one of the most Important changing points in ancient Mesopotamians life’s in the area of transportation.

Another type of art ancient Mesopotamia was pottery, ancient Mesopotamia people designed their pottery in all shapes and sizes and were decorated in various colors, especially grey, black, red, and green and some times with silver wire. Patterns were a favorite form of design. Potters also decorated their pots with pictures of animals, and often drawn in a way that makes the animals look almost like patterns. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamian’s used colorful and many different details to make the pottery creative and cool.

Ancient Mesopotamia had another important art or architecture which is building items for jobs or for any other reasons, ancient Mesopotamia improved in their jobs after using this thing, they created materials like, sickles that were used to cut grass and reeds, these items were often made of animal bones with sharp ends. These made farmers work a lot easer because of those improvements. Ancient Mesopotamia people also created more of improved items or materials these are some, points of spear, harpoons, arrowheads, pins, needles, awls, and hooks were made from stones and bones, and also woods. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamia were creative in thinking’s and because of that the improved their empire, at the same time it shows us that ancient Mesopotamian people were very creative in all kinds of art.

Ancient Mesopotamia people set beside cretin days special holy days or festivals or ceremonies, during the city festivals, the city gods and goodness were prized. This shows that Mesopotamia concentrated on religion more than any thing else that they were doing, and it also shows us that ancient Mesopotamian peoples had religion as a daily bases.

Ancient Mesopotamia cave painters drew animals and weird things on their walls on walls of their caves this may be part of their belief. This shows that ancient Mesopotamia had many time to express their belief and weren’t busy at the time they drew art on their walls, and it also shows us that ancient Mesopotamian people were creative and this also related to the use of art in ancient Mesopotamia, and the importance of it in their days.

Music played an important part in ancient Mesopotamia belief and religion and also personal life’s. After 2000 B.C, text left behind telling us that they sang hymns in these temples. Some parts were sung by a priest and other by a choir. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamia was also creative in their religion and started to use a really improve thing in ancient Mesopotamian days that were full of magnificent improvement and careers.

The Mesopotamians worshiped many different gods and goddess, believing in many different gods and goddess is known as polytheism.
These god and goddess had different names in different cities, their names also changed over time. The main god of Babylon was mardut, the people of the city Ashur had a god called Ashur, and people in cities chose one of these gods to be their special city god. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamian people worshipped many different gods, every different city had a god and every one in the city believes their city gods.

The Mesopotamians believed in afterlives, Neanderthals buried their dead with different types of objects, presumably so they could be used in after life. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamia believed in after live and were really concentrating on religion more than any thing else.

The Mesopotamian bullied a lot of materials so they get their way easy through farming like cutting things related to farming they created Points of spears, harpoons, arrowhead, pins, needles, awls, and hook made from stone and bone and also wood. This shows that ancient Mesopotamia had their most jobs used witch is farming because they made sharp materials for farming that are also used today in modern life.

Jobs in ancient Mesopotamia was one of the important and the major things in their time, there are many jobs in ancient Mesopotamia some of them are stone craver, Fish men, and many types of farming, like cutting trees or cutting any other plants, also transportation was one and may be the most important job. This shows us that ancient Mesopotamia had many different types and kinds of jobs and that aren’t any used today, and at the same time it shows us that Mesopotamia focused a lot in jobs so they can build a better future for their kids.

At last ancient Mesopotamia people disappeared and declined because there was never a regular supply of water in ancient Mesopotamia, and therefore irrigation was the central to controlling the crops, which is in southern Mesopotamia. This essay shows the life of ancient Mesopotamia people in their time, and also the importance of religion, architecture, and also jobs.

Mesopotamia had one of the most advanced civilizations in the end as seen in this essay, they did many different things that help us now and maybe help our future kids later, Mesopotamia effected many of other civilizations in the past, and also Mesopotamia had the most advanced things in the past civilizations. They have been using math’s “ geometric shapes” in the piece of art and pottery, they have created the most effective tool which is wheels that had been used a lot these days, like on cars and many other helpful transportation tools.

Bibliography

www.Ancienthistory.about.com/cs/nemthology/a/meopotamiarel.htm

www.Ancient history.about.com/cs/nemthology/a/meopotamiarel.htm

Library book – Ancient civilization – Mesopotamia

Google.com – Did ancient Mesopotamia believed in after life?

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Library book – Butterfly book – Mesopotamia

www.Answer.com

www.huntfor.com/arthistory/ancient/meopotamia

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Ancient mesopotamian civilizations summaries