Elizabeth the Queen

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Elizabeth the Queen

Elizabeth 1558

Upon becoming Queen in 1558, Elizabeth inherited a realm that seemed vulnerable to attack. In spite of the peace negotiations at Cateau Cambresis, England was technically at war with the France. In addition to this, French troops were still in Scotland and the Dauphiness (Mary Queen of Scots) claimed that she was the legitimate Catholic claimant to the English throne NOTICE THE SIMILARITY TO HENRY VII- BOTH WERE CHALLENGED BY RIVALS TO THEIR DYNASTY EARLY ON. In addition to this, the pope had already declared Elizabeth a bastard, giving the French a motive to invade (significantly, Elizabeth was not however excommunicated until 1570).

Elizabeth was therefore dependent on good relations with Spain as protection, yet this was by no means secure. The major worry was that Philip may arrange a separate peace with the French (following the Italian Wars), and if the pope ever excommunicated Elizabeth, Philip may join a crusade against her. The one positive for Elizabeth was that in the short term at least, the Spanish would continue to back Elizabeth, as it made no sense for the French backed Mary Queen of Scots to replace her as queen. A pro French Queen of England would decisively tip the balance of power towards the French, and could even threaten Spain’s land in Flanders. Although Elizabeth was a Protestant, she avoided pursuing a radical religious policy (see notes on Elizabethan Religious Settlement- I don’t think I gave these to one group), ensuring there was a sound basis for Anglo-Spanish cooperation.

Cateau Cambresis

At Cateau Cambresis (the peace conference held after England pulled out of the Italian Wars following Mary’s loss of Calais), it was agreed that the French would hold Calais for 8 years, before either giving it back, or paying a sum ( this was without doubt a face saving solution for Elizabeth!). More significantly for England’s national security, the French also agreed to pull down the garrison of Eyemouth on the Scottish border. Cateau Cambresis did perhaps free Elizabeth somewhat, as by guaranteeing her immediate security (the closure of the garrison at Eyemouth reduced the potential for French involvement) she could start to follow a slightly more radical internal religious policy. On the other hand, France remained a major threat, particularly with Henri II continuing to uphold his Daughter in Law’s claim (Mary Queen of Scots) to the throne of England, and continuing to involve himself in Scotland.

Events in Scotland

In 1559, Pro Protestant Scottish nobles rebelled against the Pro French/Pro Catholic policies of Mary of Guise (Mary Queen of Scot’s Mother and the Protector of Scotland) who ahd Frenchmen installed as both the Treasurer and Keeper of the Seal. On the one hand, this was potentially an extremely positive development, as it could bring England and Scotland closer together due to the protestant link (shows the possible longer term success of Somerset’s garrisoning policy). On the other hand it also brought the threat of even greater French involvement in Scotland as they may send troops to protect their interests.

Cecil (Elizabeth’s chief advisor) wanted to help the rebels; in the short term he felt removing the French from Scotland would increase national security by preventing the invasion of England. His longer term vision was to establish a Protestant pro English government in Scotland, which could forge a close alliance with England. Elizabeth’s initial policy reflects her conservative nature, opting to send just £2,000 to the rebels. She was both cautious of encouraging further French involvement in Scotland, and disliked the idea of was encouraging rebellion against a monarch.

Things became worse for Elizabeth in 1559 when Mary Queen of Scots became Queen consort of France (Her husband became King Francis II). The Duke of Guise (Mary’s Uncle) dominated Francis and was determined to stamp out the rebellion in Scotland and assert Mary’s claim to the throne of England. In August and September he sent 2,000 troops to Scotland, with the Scots appealing to Elizabeth for aid.. When Elizabeth’s council met, they were divided as to what course of action to take. Cecil supported military action to help the Protestant lords, however others such as Bacon who were fearful of France preferred to give more secretive aid to avoid provocation..

KEY POINT NOTICE HOW THE VIEWS OF THE SCOTS ARE CHANGING; DUE TO THE SPREAD OF PROTESTANTISM, THE AULD ALLIANCE BEGAN TO WEAKEN, WITH THE SCOTS SEEINGTHE FRENCH AS INVADERS

Elizabeth was reluctant to commit herself too fully to the rebels, whose Protestantism appeared a little extreme. The news that French troops had reached Leith did however persuade her more conservative councillors that more direct English intervention was needed, however Elizabeth was only willing to send Norfolk to Newcastle to command her northern army when Cecil threatened to resign. Although at the Treaty of Berwick Elizabeth promised to send English troops to Scotland, Elizabeth was specific as to her terms; the English would only give protection to the Scottish lords as long as Mary was married to the French, as Elizabeth did not want to get too bogged down in Scottish affairs as it could become both a financial drain, and continued involvement could hinder relations in the long term (Contrast to Somerset).

In March 1560, Grey led the English troops into Scotland. Although the campaigning itself went relatively badly, in June Mary of Guise died, forcing the French to negotiate. The subsequent Treaty of Edinburgh agreed that English and French troops would leave Scotland, and although never ratified, it essentially broke the Auld Alliance leaving Protestantism in the ascendancy in Scotland THIS IS A KEY TURNING POINT IN TERMS OF ANGLO SCOTTISH RELATIONS! Cecil’s adventurous policy had worked, and the establishment of Protestantism delayed further French involvement until late in the 1560s. In France, the Guises were being challenged by the Huguenots, increasing their willingness to make terms with England, giving Elizabeth security for the first real time in her reign. The death of Francis in 1560 put France on the brink of civil war which (broke out in 1562).

In July 1560 the Scottish Reformation Parliament met. They repudiated the pope's authority and forbade the celebration of the Mass, turning Scotland into a [protestant state (although there was still Catholic opposition- the country was in effect in a civil war).

The French Civil War (Wars of Religion)

Fearful that the Guises would triumph, Huguenot (French Protestant) leaders appealed to Elizabeth for aid, offering her Le Havre and Dieppe as pledges for the eventual restoration of Calais which they promised should the Huguenots be victorious. The recovery of Calais attracted Elizabeth to the Huguenots cause, as did her desire to prevent a Guise victory, which could be extremely dangerous for England’s national security and Elizabeth’s dynastic security given Mary Queen of Scots claim to the English throne. Even though Mary Queen of Scots was no longer Queen of France due to Francis’ death, she remained dangerous.

The reasons for supporting the rebels were varied, and were certainly not all to do with religion. Each dominant figure within the council had different motives for supporting the Huguenots: Cecil saw involvement as essential to safeguard national security, Dudley felt it could support his personal ambitions, and Throckmorton saw it as desirable on religious grounds. For Elizabeth involvement seemed sensible on dynastic grounds as it would check the power of the Guise faction; if their power was reduced, they would not be able to support Mary Queen of Scots in her claim to the English throne. Crucially, all agreed that intervention was necessary and desirable, leading to the signing of the 1562 Treaty of Hampton court.

The war went badly, with Dieppe falling to the Catholics before the end of the year. Worse was to come in December when the Huguenot leader Conde patched up his difference with Catherine De Medici and agreed to help expel the English from France. By 1563 Warwick had surrendered Le Havre the last English garrison, abandoning any hope of recapturing Calais. This disastrous chain of events had a major impact on Elizabeth, making it unlikely she would engage in further continental adventures, a view shared by Cecil. Although she involved herself in European affairs later in her reign, this was only when England’s national security was under threat (COMPARE TO HENRY VII AND CONTRAST TO HENRY VIII E.G. WITH HIS INVASION OF FRANCE IN 1544).

Spain 1564-85

For the first decade of Elizabeth’s rule, relations with Spain were uneasy, but not particularly bad, with Philip preferring a heretic to a French woman (Mary Queen of Scots) on the throne of England (he twice persuaded the pope not to excommunicate her). From 1562-4 however relations began to get a little more unstable. The most likely cause of this was Elizabeth’s internal religious policies, with the disagreements manifesting themselves in a series of trade boycotts.

In spite of this, the first open breach between the two was not until 1568 (although Elizabeth had turned down Philip’s offer of a marriage in 1559, she had carried out negotiations with the Habsburg Archduke of Austria in order to maintain the Spanish alliance). The 1568 breach was partly caused by Spain replacing De Silva (the Spanish Ambassador to England) with De Spes (a friend of English Catholic exiles) and expelling John Man, the English ambassador to Spain. It is however unfair to see this as a new period of aggressive policy on the part of Spain; ambassadors were regularly changed, and Man was largely responsible for his own expulsion by calling the pope a “chanting monk”. In addition to this, with the Netherlands in turmoil, Spain could not afford to lose the support of the English.

The Netherlands (and the effect events in the Netherlands had on Anglo Spanish relations)

The key origin of the breakdown with England and Spain occurred in the Netherlands in 1566-8. The Netherlands had been a semi autonomous group of cities and provinces (officially ruled over by the Spanish since 1515 when Charles V inherited them), however Philip tried to impose a more centralized rule. When revolt broke out in 1566 (led by Protestant rebels) he sent an army of 10,000 under the command of the Duke of Alva which was later increased to 50,000 to deal with them. On the one hand Elizabeth publicly approved of the execution of rebel leaders such as Egmont and Horn, she did not like the idea of Spanish troops in the Netherlands, whose deep harbours and favourable winds could open the way to an invasion.

NOTICE HOW ELIZABETH WAS STARTING TO BECOME INCREASINGLY FEARFUL OF SPAIN SEEING THEM AS A THREAT TO ANTIONAL SECURITY. ALTHOUGH TRADITIONALLY ENGLAND’S ALLY, THE TWO WERE BECOMING INCREASINGLY DIVIDED AT A RELIGIOUS LEVEL. MORE IMPORTANTLY, ELIZABETH FELT THREATENNED BY SPAIN’S GROWING POWER- IT HAD ALWAYS BEEN THE POLICY OF ENGLAND TO STOP ONE POWER BECOMING TOO POWERFUL, HENCEFORTH THE MAJOR THREAT TO ENGLAND WOULD APPEAR TO COME FROM A POWERFUL SPAIN, RATHER THAN FRANCE.

THIS IS ALSO EXTEREMELY IMPORTANT AS IT LEADS TO THE START OF REPAIRED RELATIONS WITH THE FRENCH

What did Elizabeth do?

By 1568, Alva had achieved victory over his opponents including William of Orange. With Elizabeth worried for England’s national security there appeared little she could do; war seemed ridiculous as the English could not oppose the Spanish on equal terms (remember the fiasco of helping the Huguenots in 1562!). Therefore harassment of Spain and demonstration of England’s power seemed the only viable alternative. NOTICE HOW ELIZABETH WAS AWARE OF ENGLAND’S LIMITATIONS! (this can be compared to Henry VII e.g. when he went into France in 1492 he did so late in the campaigning season so he would not have to stay long. Contrast to Mary I who involved England in the Italian Wars when she was not strong enough, and Henry VIII’s failed attempts to invade France).

Seamen were encouraged to break through the Spanish trading monopoly with the New World, as shown by the last of Hawkin’s slaving voyages in which he tried to sell slaves in Spanish America. By doing so, Elizabeth was trying to break the trading monopoly of Philip and the Spanish in the Americas NOTICE HOW TRADE IS BECOMING A WEAPON- POSSIBLE LINK WITH THE POLICIES OF HENRY VII TOWARDS BURGUNDY IN 1493. It is useful to think about what Elizabeth’s motives were here. Was it to stimulate trade? (possible link with Henry VII who had hoped yet failed to gain access to the New World trade through Medina Del Campo), or was here motive national security (by reducing Spain’s wealth, she could reduce the threat they posed).

The seizure of the Spanish bullion

Although probably more of a veiled threat to the Spanish, this ended in disaster. In 1568 England seized ships carrying 400,000 florins (these was taken from Spanish ships carrying money lent by Genoese bankers to fund the cost of the Spanish army in the Netherlands) with the bullion brought ashore. It is still unclear as to what English motives were- was it an act of cooperation to stop it falling into the hands of the French (as the English alleged)? Was it partly revenge for the San Juan massacre (when Spanish ships had destroyed a number of Hawkin’s ships trying to break the Spanish monopoly over the slave trade)? Was it an attempt to raise revenue whilst making it difficult for the Spanish to continue fighting in the Netherlands (therefore national security)? Seizures like this were however common (and there was a legal pretext), so in this respect England did not expect the reaction they got from the Spanish- it was more a diplomatic blunder on the part of England. In response, Alva seized English property and goods in the Netherlands, causing the English to do similar. Anglo Spanish trade was effectively ended for 5 years from 1568-73 (far worse than the sporadic 1564 boycott) due to what was essentially to a diplomatic blunder. This led to a major deterioration in relations.

Questions that arise from this

What effect would this loss of trade, coupled with the decline of the Antwerp cloth market have on Anglo Spanish relations (e.g. England no longer needed Spain as much, as they had done post 1515)? Did such a boycott necessarily need to prove terminal to relations? (Under Henry VII, England had amicable relations with Burgundy after lifting the 1493-5 boycott. In addition, Henry VIII was able to re establish relatively positive relations with the Netherlands and Spain after breaking off trade with the Netherlands in 1527).

The further development of Anglo Spanish hostility (potential for Spanish involvement in English domestic affairs)

This led to a serious decline in relations. Philip authorised Alva to give money to the Catholics in the Northern Rebellion of 1569, which was a rebellion led by Catholic Pro Spanish nobles, Northumberland and Westmoreland who wanted to replace Elizabeth, most likely with Mary Queen of Scots. Although the Spanish did not help in the end, it is interesting that the Spanish were now considering giving help to the Pro French Mary Queen of Scots (however this could be why they refrained from giving aid to the rebels!)

Philip was also supportive of the Ridolfi plot, and authorised Alba to send 10,000 soldiers should it go ahead. The Ridolfi plot planned to remove Elizabeth and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots who would marry Norfolk. The plot was discovered in 1571 (and never went ahead) however it would appear unlikely that the Spanish would have committed troops, given the fact that it would have put Mary Queen of Scots on the throne. In 1570 however, Elizabeth was excommunicated, which led to the strongly Catholic Spanish moving further away from England, opening up the potential for a crusade against Elizabeth (link to Henry VIII when in 1538 Cardinal Beaton was sent to Scotland, and Pole sent to France to help raise troops for a crusade).

This in turn was mirrored by a more aggressive policy by England against the Spanish. English privateers (Pirates operating under a license from the government) cooperated with the Dutch Sea Beggars (Dutch privateers opposing the Spanish rule) and Huguenots in attacking Spanish ships. This growing hostility towards the Spanish saw her move closer to the French, and in 1571 negotiations opened for a marriage between Eliz and Henri Duke of Anjou (heir presumptive to the French throne and a moderate catholic) POSSIBLY TO FORCE THE SPANISH TO IMPROVE RELATIONS WITH HER???. Although this failed a defensive treaty of friendship was signed with the French at Blois in 1572. Notice how relations with France have steadily improved since the start of Elizabeth’s reign. This is probably the best that they have been since 1527 when Henry VIII paid part of the costs for the French army marching on Italy.

Elizabeth was however reluctant for the breach with Spain to last, and just before Blois indicated to the Spanish that she did want to reopen trade, and in 1572, the Dutch Sea Beggars were banned from English ports. WHAT DOES THIS TELL US ABOUT ELIZABETH’S PRIORITIES? By 1573 Anglo Spanish trade was reopened and in 1574 the Convention of Bristol was signed. The growing accord was however shattered by the opening of the second phase of the Dutch Revolt following the seizure of the town of Brill by the rebels

Elizabeth’s policy during the second phase of the revolt

It is unclear exactly what Elizabeth saw as a desirable outcome, however she probably wanted the Netherlands to remain nominally Spanish (although semi autonomous). This would prevent the French taking control of the Netherlands (which could potentially be more damaging for national security) therefore her policy to the Netherlands was built just as much on a fear of France as it was a fear of Spain.

At this point only 2 Dutch provinces were in revolt, with Elizabeth keen to remain neutral and be a mediator in spite of what Dudley wanted. Although not officially giving the Dutch aid, she did let them purchase from England and allowed volunteers to fight for them, whilst stopping mercenaries fighting for the Spanish. IT MADE LITTLE SENSE HOWEVR TO GIVE OPEN AID TO REBELS WHO WOULD PROBABLY NOT WIN, AND THUS DESTROY RELATIONS WITH SPAIN.

The direction of policy changed in 1575 as the Spanish launched a new military offensive. Elizabeth wanted to avoid a Spanish triumph and having the Dutch call on the French for help, as this would lead to French troops being stationed in the Netherlands. Elizabeth offered to mediate stating a restoration of the Netherlands ancient liberties and the removal of foreign troops as her aim. Although she was less clear religiously, she probably envisaged freedom of worship for Protestants. Had this been accepted, the situation would have returned to that under Charles V, and would have posed no security risk for England. But by specifying conditions essential for England’s security, she was moving away from neutrality, however she showed good sense by turning down the sovereignty of Holland and Zeeland when offered it in 1575.

The Spanish sacking of Antwerp in 1576 pushed the other Dutch provinces into all out revolt. An Estates General was called and the Pacification of Ghent was drawn up, with opposition to Spain extending to the whole of the Netherlands. The Estates General now demanded the exact terms that Eliz had demanded, and in 1577 the Spanish accepted this and their army left for Italy. The Spanish however returned alter that year and with the prospect of French involvement mooted, Elizabeth offered English troops, and warned Philip that if he did not accept the pacification and she would give her full support to the rebels.

Philip refused, but Elizabeth did not send an army. The Estates General had been reluctant to accept English soldiers anyway, and Elizabeth herself was worried they could be unreliable allies LINK TO HENRY VIII AND TO A LESSER EXTENT HENRY VII WHO HAD BEEN LET DOWN BY ALLIES IN THE PAST . There were also divisions in the council, with councillors such as Sussex arguing against it. Given the fact that Elizabeth was cautious it is hardly surprising that she followed this policy! On the other hand she could not just leave the Netherlands to Spain, so in 1578 hired John Casimir and 11,000 mercenaries. Significantly, the French sent troops first, and rather than aiding the estates General, Casimir aided the radical Calvinists, exacerbating the religious tensions.

By 1578 it did not look good for Elizabeth. The rebels were split, and therefore weakened, the Spanish consistently rejected mediation and the French were embarking on an adventure in the Netherlands that could lead to military gains. Elizabeth opened marriage negotiations with the French Duke of Anjou in 1578 to improve the situation (pressure form England and France could force Philip into a settlement) NOTICE HOW ELIZ CLEVERLY USES MARRIAGE NEGOTIATIONS EVEN THOUGH SHE NEVER MARRIES. Although no agreement came, Elizabeth came to trust him to the extent that she funded his 1581 expedition into the Netherlands. (Compare to 1527- one of the few times during the Tudor period that England gave aid to France)

Aside from events in the Netherlands, the power of Spain increased further in 1580 when Philip invaded Portugal, giving him access to their fleet which could be used to attack England with (he had already supported 2 papal expeditions to Ireland in 1579 and 1580). Henry III of France was however reluctant to assume an anti Spanish stance (Elizabeth had tried to set up a league with France aimed at encouraging anti Spanish activity in Portugal and Flanders, compare/contrast with the various leagues set up by Henry VII and Henry VIII and their relative successes and failures). The deaths of Anjou and Orange (the leader of the Dutch rebels) in 1584 seemed to open the way to the restoration of Spanish power in the Netherlands and the invasion of England.

Interestingly, the death of Anjou meant that the protestant Henry of Navarre was the heir presumptive to the French throne. This however was rather negative as it opened up another phase in the wars of religion, which made French involvement less likely (thus increasing the chance of Spanish success in the Netherlands). DEFINITE NATIONAL SECURITY RISK! It is also notable how Philip was now trying to win round the French (so they would not stand in the way of an invasion of England) by agreeing to the Treaty of Joinville in which Philip promised the Guises protection (meaning Spain were not as anti Mary Queen of Scots anymore).

Elizabeth offered informal aid to the Dutch again (eventually accepted) and in 1585 gave drake a license for a voyage to the West Indies. Worried of English privateering, Philip launched another trade embargo and seized all English shipping. Significantly, there were now few economic arguments against war. Notice the change over time; in 1527 the merchants had forced Henry VIII to abandon his war against the Spanish owned Netherlands. By 1585 it was the merchants who now wanted war! (on the other hand it is important not to over state the extent to which the declining relations with Spain were due to a desire for better trading interests, particularly after the collapse of Antwerp).

In 1585 Elizabeth signed the Treaty of Nonsuch and agreed to provide 5,000 foot soldiers and 1000 horsemen (English soldiers rather than mercenaries). She also sent Drake to release the captured ships in Spain and ordered Spain’s Caribbean ports be raided. A clear escalation of hostilities!

France 1564-85

The 1564 Treaty of Troyes had ended the hostilities with France after Elizabeth’s disastrous involvement in the Wars of Religion, and after that she was reluctant to get involved. War was risky and expensive, the Huguentots had let them down, and events in Spain meant France were no longer the main threat. At a dynastic level Elizabeth did however remain worried by the power of the Guise and feared that they may try and free Mary Queen of Scots, who had been imprisoned in England since 1568 and restore her to the throne of England and Scotland and take advantage of papal bull POSSIBLE LINK WITH PRETENDERS?

Elizabeth tried to cooperate with the French royal family to reduce the Guise influence e.g. negotiations with Duke of Anjou and Treaty of Blois (this had promised to withdraw support for Mary QS). She did at times give indirect aid to the Huguenots however (aware that this would keep France divided and therefore reduce the threat they posed) subsidising Henry of Navarre from 1585. Significanty, Elizabeth ahd no real reason to get involved in Scottish politics in the 1560s, as from 1560-8 French involvement in Scottish politics was low (Catherine De Medici, the French regent was not in favour).

French involvement in Scotland

The assassination of the Protestant Regent Morray of Scotland in 1570 led to a series of border raids from England (link to the rough wooing in the 1540’s that had aimed to subdue the Scots) and sent Scotland into a civil war between the Catholic supporters of Mary and the supporters of her Protestant son James. James looked to England, and the supporters of Mary to France. Elizabeth did not want to anger France (particularly given the poor relations with Spain), but she needed to take some action in order to reduce the national/dynastic security threat. The Scottish Catholics launched several border incursions, with Elizabeth fearful this could lead to a combined French/Catholic Scottish invasion. In 1569 Sussex launched a major border raid, seizing border stronghold, however he had little success in flushing out rebels. Although Elizabeth held back when Charles IX (new King of France) said he would help Mary Queen of Scots if England helped James, she launched a third border raid in 1570. This was however extremely successful and the Scottish border lords gave up the rebels they had been sheltering and the French did not intervene. Interestingly Eliz opted to involve herself no further WHAT DOES THIS TELL US? This can be compared to Henry VIII post Flodden. Although we understandably criticise Henry VIII for his lack of involvement after Flodden, Elizabeth did not need to involve herself any further in Scotland, given the continued growth of Protestantism. Although it seems the Ridolfi plot temporarily ended her plans for rapprochement with France this was all seemingly forgiven by the time the Treaty of Blois was signed in 1572.

In spite of these improved relations with both Scotland and France, Elizabeth remained worried about French involvement in Scotland, and sent troops in 1572 to capture Edinburgh castle and help Morton the Pro English regent. NOTICE HOW ELIZ CAN BE MORE AGRRESIVE POST BLOIS. Significantly, once she got Morton established she QUICKLY withdrew CONTRAST TO SOMERSET

All seemed good with Scotland/France until the arrival of Esme Stuart in 1579 (possibly a Guise agent) who engineered the fall and execution of Morton in the period1580-1. This worried Elizabeth, who feared he would get James to turn to Catholicism, marry a French woman and attempt to claim the English throne. Given the fact however that Morton was not popular and the fact she did not want to anger France (she saw them as a potential ally against the Spanish who were increasingly threatening by this stage) she did nothing, despite the views of her councillors. In 1582 however, Scottish Protestant conspirators captured Esme Stuart and forced him to flee to France. Crucially IN 1586 JAMES ACCEPTED IN PRINCIPLE AN ALLIANCE WITH ENGLAND IN RETURN FOR A PENSION this came the year later. Scotland were no longer a threat at this point, and remained loyal to England both during and after the armada crisis (this ultimately made the accession of James as King of England possible in 1603)

It is interesting that Elizabeth had NO INTEREST OF ABSORBING SCOTLAND (like Henry VIII and Somerset), but this is probably because she knew it would happen at the end of her reign anyway

1585-1603

This period, which saw the sailing of the Spanish Armada was generally characterised by constant hostilities between England and Spain, but generally amicable relations with France and Scotland (an interesting parallel can be made with the end of Henry VII’s reign, when he backed Philip of Burgundy against the Spanish).

Interestingly no formal declaration of war was made with Spain in this period, and it would seem that Elizabeth was cautious to avoid provoking the Spanish into war. She used privateers such as Drake to raid Spanish shipping in the West Indies (rather than authorising the Navy to carry out attacks) and in 1586 she was particularly angry when Leicester (Dudley) assumed the title of Governer General of the United Dutch Provinces in 1586 (worried that this may provoke the Spanish). Between 1585-88 Eliz tried opening 5 sets of negotiations with the Spanish, however by now he had begun to prepare the armada with a view to putting Mary Queen of Scots on the throne.

It would appear that the English raids in the Caribbean were a blow to Spanish prestige rather than commerce (suggesting Elizabeth’s attempts to reduce their power in this way had largely failed). The possible reasons for Philip’s desire to invade England are varied:

An invasion of England would make it impossible for the English to continue to give aid to the Dutch, making a Spanish victory in the Netherlands possible after the Treaty of Nonsuch had delayed Spanish advances.
An invasion would allow Philip to restore lost pride (following the English raids) whilst also allowing him to restore Catholicism.

The execution of Mary Queen of Scots in 1587 did however complicate things for Philip, as she was the natural (and Catholic) replacement for Elizabeth, with Philip now possibly planning to put his daughter Isobel on the throne. THE DEATH OF MARY QS MEANT THERE WAS NO LONGER A RIVAL DYNSATIC CLAIMANT WHO CPOULD CHALLNEGE ELIZABETH

The aftermath of the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588

The English victory was primarily due to the Spanish logistical difficulties of getting the rendezvous (Spanish ships had to sail from Spain, and arrive at Calais to pick up the Spanish troops who needed to be there at that exact time), and getting Parma’s barges to evade the Dutch. In the short term the English victory saved the Dutch, but it was not significant in the long term as within 10 years Spanish losses were replaced. Crucially it did not bring Elizabeth/England long term dynastic/national security.

The war continued to drag on , but crucially Eliz now developed a loathing of Philip, and started to follow a much more aggressive foreign policy. But ultimately her main aim was still national security (favourable settlement in Netherlands, keep French ports out of Spanish hands, build up France and Spain against each other). Crucially she never planned a full scale invasion of Spain/silver blockade what does this tell us?

From 1588-94 she continued to privateer Spanish shipping in order to finance sending troops to Netherlands and France (between 1589-94 she sends 20,000 troops to stop the Channel ports falling to the Spanish) SHOWS HOW RELATIONS WITH FRANCE HAVE CHNAGED!!!. Although in 1594 Henry IV (King of France) turned to Catholicism (had been King since 1589). This was not a disaster, as he remained tolerant of both Protestantism and Elizabeth.

With the Spanish defeated at Groningen in 1594, Eliz felt that the Netherlands were no longer under threat, and thus tried disengaging from the war after peace negotiations broke down. She also wanted to put down the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland (1595) so needed to free troops for that. Even when Calais fell to Spain in 1596 she only sent 2,000 troops, and they were for garrisoning only, suggesting that she felt the Spanish were no longer a threat.

Although reluctant to fight against the Spanish on land, she did authorise naval moves to capture Panama (partly for English benefit and partly to stop the Spanish silver trade), however this failed and Drake died. More notable however was the English attack on Cadiz in 1596 in which many Spanish ships were burned (this was essential in order to stop the Spanish getting strong enough to launch another armada against England). In spite of the success in destroying many of the Spanish battleships, the merchant fleet were able to escape, and despite the wishes of Essex, no permanent garrison was set up (e.g. a sort of Calais)- notice again how Elizabeth is extremely conservative.

The very end of the period

1598 the French Spanish war ended with Peace of Vervins. In September, Philip II died, with his successor Philip III keen for an agreement with England, a view shared by Elizabeth and Cecil. The English terms were for a neutral Netherlands (even if formally administered by Spain), with England willing to be excluded from trading with Spanish colonies. Ultimately low level talks dragged on, however most English troops had now been transferred to Ireland.

Bits to do with the end of Elizabeth’s reign that don’t seem to fit in elsewhere

Elizabeth was not at her best when launching offensive moves- Panama, Cadiz, aid to the Huguenots etc, however her diplomacy when threatened was excellent. Ultimately, much of her caution was understandable; she did not want to call taxes (led to rebellions under Henry VII- Cornish Rebellion ,and Henry VIII- Resistance to the Amicable Grant) and so was keen for other countries to pay (as shown with the Estates General). This is one of the reasons she relied on privateering as it brought in much needed money and meant she did not have to demand taxation. On the other hand, it is important to acknowledge that she was not a miser, from 1589-95 she spent £1.1 million on war (compare to the end of Henry VII’s reign) .

Ultimately, Elizabeth achieved her goals, Spain was never fully defeated (meaning France did not become too powerful), and the Southern Netherlands went back to them on a semi autonomous basis, with the Northern provinces remaining free. The new king of France, although no longer a Protestant would resist fanatic Catholicism, ensuring Protestantism was safe in England, and that England’s national security was not unduly threatened. Even in Ireland the Tyrone rebellion was eventually subdued and foreign involvement ended.

Internal problems faced towards the end of her reign

At a domestic level, trade with Spain virtually ended and the administrative machinery struggled to cope with constant warfare post 1585. Most industries (except those directly to do with war e.g. metal industries) were starved of investment, causing inflation and increased enclosures in the 1590’s (link to the price revolution in the 1540’s caused by Henry VIII debasing the coinage to pay for his aggressive foreign policy) explaining the growth of unrest. On the other hand, the fact that the Oxfordshire rebellion only attracted 4 supporters, shows that her foreign policy had much less of an impact on domestic affairs than that of other monarchs, however this is also partly down to her reform of the Poor Law, which reduced the risk of starvation and helped limit unrest; given the constant state of warfare that existed with Spain from 1585, Elizabeth did incredibly well to fund this without rebellion!

Trade

It was under Elizabeth that a replacement for the Antwerp cloth market was found, with lots of English shipping moving to Hamburg (interestingly this was a Protestant state). England also enjoyed the benefits of being able to take over some of the Dutch trade, as the Dutch became heavily involved in the war against the Spanish. In addition, Elizabeth also did much to stimulate trade further afield, sending a special commission to Ivan IV in Russia to extend the privileges of the Muscovy Company, and setting up the Turkey company in 1581 Her voyages to the West Indies were not however realistically going to break help her break into the New World trading market, and thus seemed more motivated by national/dynastic security through reducing the power of Spain.

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