Age of Reformation study guide summary chapter

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Age of Reformation study guide summary chapter

European History
Chapter 11: Age of Reformation Notes

Section One: Society and Religion

Section Overview

In the second decade of the sixteenth century, a powerful religious movement against practices in the Catholic Church erupted that attacked superstitions that robbed people of both their money and peace of mind
The Protestant Reformation took place at a time of sharp conflict between emerging nation-states bent on conformity and centralization within their realms and the self-governing towns and villages long accustomed to running their own affairs
By the late fourteenth century, territorial ruler’s laws and customs began to supersede local custom; therefore, many townspeople and villagers perceived in the religious revolt an ally in their struggle to remain politically free and independent

Social and Political Conflict

Reformation first broke out in cities of Germany and Switzerland

some cities turned Protestant and remained so, while others only embraced Protestantism for a short time
others developed mixed faiths

Groups and Individuals who supported the Protestant Reformation

Guilds embraced the Protestant Reformation

guildsmen had a history of opposition to governmental authority
members of the printers’ guild benefitted as they printed propaganda

People who were pushed around and bullied by either local or distant authority often supported the reformation

religious freedom and toleration inspired people who perceived themselves as subjects rather than free citizens
Protestantism= a priesthood of al believers vs. Catholicism= strict hierarchical structure

Popular Religious Movements and Criticism of the Church

Criticisms of the Catholic Church

Great Schism or Babylonian Captivity

papacy moved from Rome to Avignon, France when a conflict developed over whether the next pope should be Italian or French
the Avignon popes allied themselves closely with the kings of France which alienated many other western European nations
the papacy returned to Rome in 1378 after the election of an Italian pope

Decadence of the Catholic Church

the years in Avignon were characterized by corruption and gluttony
lay people felt a sense of spiritual crisis in the Catholic Church and subsequently experimented with new religious forms

Dissenters sought religious simplicity in 15th century

Albigensians, Waldensians, Beguines, and Beghards in the thirteenth century and Lollards and Hussites

The Modern Devotion, or Brothers of the Common Life

religious group that promoted religious devotion outside formal church offices and apart from religious vows
people lived communal lives devoted to theological studies and prayer but took neither oaths or vows
Erasmus and Johannes Reuchlin were educated by this order
began in the towns of Zwolle and Deventer in the Netherlands
Thomas a Kempis wrote Imitation of Christ, a summary of the beliefs of the Modern Devotion

Lay Control over Religious Life
growing sense of regional identity and secular nationalism replaced loyalty to the papacy in Rome

upper clergy (bishops and cardinals)—were influential members of the nobility who purchased their positions from the church’s benefice system

upper clergy rarely lived in the region that was under their jurisdiction

most German towns had issued complaints to the Vatican about clergy members

sale of Indulgences comes under attack

Luther was not the first to protest the selling of indulgences
local rulers had permitted the selling of indulgences as some of the proceeds were invested locally
local rulers and were not happy when money was raised for distant interests like the construction of Saint Peter’s basilica in Rome

medieval privileges of the clergy revoked

churches and monasteries were exempted from laws and taxes that applied elsewhere
law also deemed it unnecessary for clergy to participate in military service, compulsory labor, standing watch at city gates, and other civil duties
clergy enjoyed immunity for jurisdiction of civil courts
by the eve of Reformation governments had begun the process of revoking the rights of the clergy

Section Two: Martin Luther and the German Reformation

Section Overview

Northern humanists had set a sentiment of opposition to Rome in the German states which provided a solid foundation for Luther’s movement
Martin Luther

son of a successful miner
educated in Mansfield, Magdeburg—where the Brothers of the Common Life had been his teachers
earned a master of arts degree from the University of Erfurt in 1505
entered the Order of the Hermits of Saint Augustine in Erfurt
in 1512 he moved to Wittenberg where he earned his doctorate in theology and became a leader in the monastery and the spiritual life of the city

Justification by Faith Alone
beliefs of the Catholic Church regarding salvation

salvation is a joint venture , a combination of divine mercy and human good works

Luther believed Christians were left counting their merits and sins and struggled to maintain an inner peace of mind
Luther struggled with the idea that one must live a nearly sinless life to be saved
“faith alone” (sola fide), Luther taught, was all that was needed for salvation
The Attack on Indulgences

Indulgence—a remission of the temporal penalty imposed on the penitents by priests.

first given to Crusaders who could not complete their earthly penance because they had fallen in battle
by the late Middle Ages, indulgences had become an aid to laypeople who were anxious about the time they may spend in purgatory
in 1343, Pope Clement VI proclaimed the existence of a “treasury of merit”
Pope Sixtus IV extended indulgences to the unrepented sins of all Christians in purgatory

Selling Indulgences

sales of indulgences became a joint venture between Albrecht—the Augsburg banking house of Fugger—and Pope Leo X; they split the money raised 50/50
John Tetzel was enlisted to preach—or market—indulgences in Albrecht’s territory

Luther began his public protest of indulgences on October 31, 1517 when he posted the 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg

Election of Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I died on January 12, 1519

Two candidates to replace him: King Francis I of France and Charles I of Spain, were the leading candidates

The pope supported the king of France
German states were tired of outside interference in the Holy Roman Empire

Seven imperial electors chose Charles I of Spain

Frederick the Wise, Luther’s protector, was one of the seven electors
Proved the power of the German princes over that of the pope

Luther’s Excommunication and the Diet of Worms

Luther debated Catholic doctrine against John Eck Leipzig

Luther challenged the infallibility of the pope and Church councils
contended that sole authority of the Church lies in scripture alone
defended Jan Hus who had been condemned to death for heresy at the Council of Constance

Luther published three famous pamphlets

Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation

tried to convince the German nobility to the political and economic power of the Church

Babylonian Captivity of the Church

argued that baptism and Eucharist were the only two sacraments mentioned in scripture

Freedom of a Christian

belief in salvation through faith alone

Exsurge Domine

papal bull issued by Leo X which condemned Luther for heresy and gave him sixty days to recant

Diet of Worms

meeting—which was overseen by Charles V—where Luther was ordered to recant
Luther refused to recant and was placed under an imperial ban, which made him an outlaw to both religious and secular authorities

Frederick the Wise protects Luther

remained in hiding for a year at the Wartburg castle
he translated the New Testament into German using Erasmus’s new Greek text and Latin translation

Imperial Distractions: War with France and the Turks

Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain who had other responsibilities to attend to

family (the Habsburg dynasty) fought four major wars against France over territory in Italy
Charles V was responsible for stopping the advance of the Turks into eastern Europe

Peace of Augsburg which gave regional princes the authority to determine religious matters in their lands

How the Reformation Spread

Political leaders, who had sought religious reform for decades, welcomed Luther’s message
Elector of Saxony and Prince of Hesse led the politicization of religious reform within the territories

recognized the political and economic opportunities if the Catholic Church failed

Schmaldkaldic League

a powerful defensive alliance of Protestant states that prepared for war against the Catholic emperor

The Peasants’ Revolt

German peasantry believed Luther to be an ally

recent tax increases and revocation of traditional rights fueled peasant anger

peasant leaders solicited Luther’s support for their cause and Luther initially sympathized with them
Luther later condemned them as unchristian and urged princes to crush the rebellion
70,000-100,000 peasants were killed by the time the revolt was suppressed

Section Three: The Reformation Elsewhere

Section Overview

German Reformation came first but it quickly caught on in Switzerland and France

Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation

Political make-up of Switzerland

loose confederation of thirteen autonomous cantons, or states
strong nationalism
desire for church reform had been deeply ingrained in Switzerland for about a century

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

inspired by Erasmus
widely known for his opposition to the sale of indulgences and religious superstition
he advocated for the right of clergy to legally marry
disputed the notion of transubstantiation, the worship of saints, pilgrimages, purgatory, certain sacraments, and fasting during Lent since they are not mentioned in scripture

Zwingli transformed Zurich into the center of the Swiss Reformation and made it a puritanical state

The Marburg Colloquy

Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli—differences

Disagreement over the Eucharist

Luther believed that Jesus’ physical body was present in the Eucharist
Zwingli believed that Christ’s presence in the Eucharist was symbolic or spiritual

Swiss Civil Wars

Civil wars broke out between Catholics and Protestants

Two major battles
June 1529—this battle was won by the Protestants and forced the Catholic cantons to recognize the rights of Swiss Protestants
October 1531—Catholics victory and Zwingli lay wounded on the battlefield and was executed

Section Four: Anabaptists and the Radical Protestants

Section Overview

Some people accused Zwingli and Luther of not promoting drastic change and these radicals desired a more thorough implementation of Apostolic Christianity
Anabaptists, the sixteenth century ancestors of the modern Mennonites and Amish, were the most important of the radical groups that emerged who distinguished themselves by rejecting infant baptism and insisted on adult baptisms since Jesus had been baptized as an adult

Conrad Grebel and the Swiss Brethren

Conrad Grebel (1498-1526)

founder of the Anabaptists who were known as the Swiss Brethren
he was initially a co-worker of Zwingli but favored a more literal interpretation of scripture

Anabaptist Beliefs

Schleitheim Confession

outlines the beliefs of Anabatists

believed in pacifism, refused to swear oaths, and non-participation in the offices of secular government
separated themselves from established society in order to live communal lives in the imitation of Christ

secular authorities perceived this separatism as a threat to basic social bonds

Anabaptist Reign in Munster

Catholics, Lutherans, and Zwinglians all opposed Anabaptism and they were persecuted in cities;
movement found a footing in the rural, agrarian classes of people
Anabaptism in the German city of Munster

Jan Matthys of Haarlem and Jan Beukelsz of Leiden established an Anabaptists stronghold in Munster
Catholics and Lutherans were forced to convert or leave the city
Implemented an Old Testament theocracy in which polygamy was the norm
these reforms shocked the rest of Europe and Protestant and Catholic armies attacked Munster and executed the radical leaders

Menno Simons (1496-1561)

established a non-provocative separatist Anabaptism which became the historical form in which Antabaptist sects survived down to the present

Spiritualists

Protestant dissenters who scorned institutional religion
Significant spiritualists

Thomas Muntzer—died as leader of the peasants’ revolt in Germany
Sebastian Franck—a critic of all dogmatic religion who proclaimed religious autonomy and freedom of every individual soul
Caspar Schwenckfeld—prolific writer and wanderer who established a Church

Antitrinitarians

advocated for a commonsense, rational, and ethical religion
notable Antitrinitarians

Michael Servetus—a Spaniard who was executed in Geneva at the encouragement of John Calvin who found his teachings blasphemous against the trinity
Lelio and Faustus Sozzini—two Italian men who were the founders of Socinianism and were strong opponents of Calvinism and in particular the ideas of original sin and predestination

Section Five: John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation

Section Overview

Calvinism replaced Lutheranism as the dominant form of Protestantism in the second half of the sixteenth century
Calvinism was the religious ideology that inspired massive political resistance in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Scotland
Calvinist beliefs

divine predestination
it is the individual’s responsibility to reorder society according to God’s plan

John Calvin (1509-1564)

born into a wealthy French family
he earned a degree in law from a university in Paris
he believed that humans must conform to God’s will

Political Revolt and Religious Reform in Geneva

People of Geneva revolt against the ruling Catholic bishop
Guillaume Farel and Antione Froment arrived in Geneva shortly after the revolt and implemented religious reform
Some thought Calvin and Farel had gone too far and they were exiled from Geneva
Calvin wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion

Calvin’s Geneva

Calvin was invited back to Geneva when his supporters were elected to government positions
Calvin organized cooperation between the secular leaders and the clergy in matters of internal discipline
Four Offices in Geneva

There were five pastors
teachers or doctors to instruct people in doctrine
elders, a group of twelve lay people chosen by the people of Geneva to “oversee the life of everybody”
deacons to dispense church goods and services to the poor and sick

Predestination was at the center of Calvin’s beliefs

controversial as it denies the existence of human free will
living as the Bible instructed them to do is presumptive evidence that they were among God’s elect

Calvin implemented strict moral order in Geneva

5,000 refugees from France, England, and Scotland fled religious persecution and moved to Geneva
considered a “woman’s paradise” because there were strict laws against men beating their wives

Section Six: Political Consolidation of the Lutheran Reformation

Section Overview

Several attempts were made to eradicate Protestantism
The political triumph of Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire validated that it would remain in Europe as a competing ideology with Catholicism

The Diet of Augusburg

Conference in the Holy Roman Empire

presided over by the Catholic emperor Charles V
assembly of Catholic and Protestant leaders within the empire met to discuss the issue of faith
Charles V, and his Catholic supporters, demanded that all Lutherans revert to Catholicism

The Schmalkaldic League

an alliance of Lutherans who opposed Charles V’s policy
the league produced two documents, the Augusburg Confession and Schmalkaldic Articles, that advocated a moderate form of Protestantism

Expansion of the Reformation

regional judicial bodies composed of theologians and lawyers oversaw the Protestant churches and replaced the old Catholic bishops
education reforms in Germany provided compulsory primary education based on humanist curriculum
King Christian II of Denmark promoted Protestantism
King Gustav I of Sweden embraced Lutheranism so he could confiscate church lands
Many people in Poland adopted Protestant views

Reaction Against Protestants

Charles V’s Catholic army crushed an army assembled by the Schmalkaldic League

Protestant leaders John Fredrick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse were captured

Protestant leaders went into hiding and Magdeburg became a refuge for persecuted Protestants

Peace of Augsburg (1547)

Charles V realized that Protestantism was too deeply entrenched in the Holy Roman Empire to eradicate it
Peace of Passau (August 1552)

Protestant forces defeated the army of Charles V and forced negotiations
at this meeting, Charles V reinstated Protestant leaders and promised Lutherans religious freedom

Peace of Augsburg (September 1555)

declared that the ruler of a land would determine its religion
people discontented with the religion of their region were permitted to migrate to another
religious freedom did not extend to Calvinists and Anabaptists

Section Seven: The English Reformation

Section Overview:

England maintained relative freedom from papal influence throughout the late medieval period

Edward I had rejected efforts by Pope Boniface VIII to prevent secular taxation of the clergy
rejected papal appointments to positions

Lollards in England

followers of John Wycliffe
believed the extravagance of the Catholic Church interfered with proper worship
basic beliefs

iconoclasts
church leaders should not pursue secular power or wealth
looked to scripture for religious truth
consubstantiation

The Preconditions of Reform

some Cambridge theologians formally debated Luther’s beliefs

William Tyndale translated the New Testament of the Bible into English

Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and Sir Thomas More guided royal opposition to Protestantism in England
Henry VIII had been declared “defender of the faith” by Pope Leo X for his opposition to Protestantism

The King’s Affair

Henry VII had arranged the marriage of his eldest son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain
Prince Arthur died shortly after their marriage so Henry took Catherine as his wife

Pope Julius II issued a special dispensation that allowed Henry to legally Mary his deceased brother’s wife

the marriage of Catherine and Henry produced only one child, Mary, and Henry was concerned of the political implications of leaving only a female heir
by 1527, already married to Catherine for eighteen years, Henry fell in love (or lust) with Anne Boleyn and sought to marry her and attempt to produce a son

shortly before Henry sent a plea to Rome for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, Charles V’s army had sacked Rome and held Pope Clement VII hostage

since Charles V was also Catherine’s nephew, it was not in his interest to let the pope annul her marriage to Henry

since Thomas Wolsey was unable to broker Henry’s annulment from Catherine, Henry dismissed him and promoted two Lutheran sympathizers—Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell—as his close advisors

The Reformation Parliament

series of meetings which set the precedent that changes in religion must receive approval of Parliament and monarch before enactment
Convocation, or leg assembly representing the English clergy, publicly recognized Henry VIII as the head of the church in England
Submission of the Clergy

placed cannon law under royal control

Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as archbishop of Canterbury

he led the Convocation in invalidating Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon

Henry then married the pregnant Anne Boleyn
Two important pieces of legislation

Act of Succession—declared the children of Henry and Anne the rightful heirs to the throne
Act of Supremacy—declared Henry the only supreme head of the Church of England

Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher of Rochester refused to accept these acts and Henry had them executed
Parliament dissolved England’s monasteries and nunneries

Wives of Henry VIII

Catherine of Aragon—marriage ended in divorce or was invalidated; they had one daughter, Mary
Anne Boleyn—beheaded on allegations of treason and adultery; they had a daughter, Elizabeth
Jane Seymour—died after giving birth to the future Edward VI
Anne of Cleves—marries her to establish an alliance with the Protestant princes of Germany; Henry found her repulsive and had the marriage invalidated
Katherine Howard—executed for adultery
Catherine Parr—remarried for a fourth time after Henry’s death

The King’s Religious Conservatism

Church of England split from Catholicism on only very few issues
Six Articles of 1539

reaffirmed transubstantiation
denied the Eucharistic cup to laity
upheld celibacy of clergy
continuation oral confession

England had to wait for Henry’s death until it could enact genuine Protestant reform

The Protestantism of Edward VI

Henry’s son Edward VI took the throne at age ten

royal advisors Edward Seymour, the Duke of Somerset and the duke of Northumberland ruled the country

major reforms

clerical marriage
communion wine shared with laity
Act of Uniformity (1549)

images were removed from churches
Thomas Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer was imposed on the people of England

Second Book of Common Prayerissued by Cranmer

taught justification by faith and the supremacy of Holy Scripture
denied transubstantiation
recognized only two sacraments: baptism and eucharist

Bloody Mary repealed Protestant reforms and imposed strict Catholic rule on the people of England
Elizabeth I succeeded Mary and worked out a lasting religious settlement for England

Section Eight: Catholic Reform and the Counter Reformation

Sources of Catholic Reform

Several reform groups emerged within the Catholic Church that emphasized apostolic piety

Theatines—a group who trained reform-minded leaders in the higher level of the church hierarchy

Bishop Gian Pietro Carafa, who founded this group, would go on to become Pope Paul IV

Capuchins—sought to return to the ideas of Saint Francis
Barnabites and Somaschi—worked to repair moral, spiritual, and physical damage done to people in war-torn Italy
Ursulines—a new order of nuns that established several convents in Italy and France

Saint Teresea of Avila and Saint John of the Cross

Spanish mystics
encouraged apostolic piety

Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits

The Jesuits, or Society of Jesus

organized by Ignatius of Loyola
launched aggressive missions in India, Japan, and the Americas

Ignatius wrote Spiritual Exercises which contained mental and emotional exercises designed to teach one self-mastery over one’s feelings
Jesuits fought against the Reformation

Taught that good Catholics deny themselves and submit without question to higher church authority
perfect discipline and self control were essential
Jesuits helped counter the Reformation and win many Protestants back to the Catholic persuasion

The Council of Trent

Emperor Charles V advised Pope Paul III to call a general council of the church to reassert church doctrine

Council of Trent included three sessions spread over the course of eighteen years due to war, plague, and politics

Reforms produced by the council

end the sale of church offices
bishops were forced to move to their dioceses
required bishops to say mass and preach in their dioceses
seminaries were to be established in every diocese in order to better train priests

Conservatism at the council

Catholic Church reaffirmed its conviction in

good works were necessary for salvation
all seven sacraments
transubstantiation
withholding of the Eucharistic cup from the laity
clerical celibacy
purgatory
the veneration of saints, relics, and sacred images

Section Nine: The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe

Section Overview

Luther, Zwingli and Calvin are often referred to as “magisterial reformers” which means that they were religious reformers who’s successes were dependent upon the magistrate’s sword

The Revolution in Religious Practices

Religion in Fifteenth-Century Life

clergy dominated both the secular and spiritual lives of the people
church calendar regulated daily life as nearly one-third of the year was given to some type of religious observance; there were frequent periods of fasting

on almost one hundred days out of the year, a pious Christian could not eat eggs, butter, animal fat, or meat

monasteries and nunneries were powerful institutions
religious shrines were everywhere and images of saints were paraded around towns and cities
many clergy walked the streets with concubines and children although they were sworn to celibacy
townspeople were unhappy that the clergy was exempt from paying taxes
people were concerned with the church’s influence over culture and education

Religion in Sixteenth-Century Life

after the Reformation took hold in these cities, few changes in politics and society were evident

the same aristocratic families were still in power and the rich continued to get richer and the poor, poorer

the number of religious feast days were noticeably reduced
most cloisters were shut down
indulgence preachers no longer traveled through the towns
clergy paid taxes and were tried in civil courts
whereas one-half of Europe could be counted in the Protestant camp in the mid-sixteenth century, only one-fifth would be there by the mid-seventeenth century

The Reformation and Education

Protestant reformers in England, Germany, and France were humanists; therefore humanism was implemented as the focus of the curriculum in many of these areas

Philp Melanchthon

a young humanist and professor of Greek at Wittenberg University
scorned scholasticism

Catholic Church—and in particular the Jesuits—believed that scripture should be read through the lens of the scholastic teachings of the Church fathers

John Calvin, and his successor Theodore Beza, established the Genevan Academy

created to train Calvinist ministers and the curriculum was similar to that established by Melanchthon

The Reformation and the Changing Role of Women

Protestant reformers favored clerical marriage, opposed monasticism, and worked to eradicate the model of woman as temptress

believed that women should not be degraded as Eve but rather exalted as virgins on the model of Mary
wives remained subjects of their husbands but new laws gave them greater security and protection

Protestant women gained the right to divorce and remarry

encouraged education of girls in literacy of vernacular so they could read and model their lives after the Bible

women found passages in the Bible that declare woman’s equality with man

Section Ten: Family Life in Early Modern Europe

Section Overview

Changes in the timing and duration of marriage, family size, and infant and child care suggests that family life was under a variety of social and economic pressures in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries

Later Marriages

Between 1500 and 1800 men and women married at later ages than they had in previous centuries

men in their mid-late twenties and women in their early to mid-twenties
late marriages were due to the fact that couples found it increasingly difficult to support themselves independently

Protestants and Catholics required parental consent to legalize marriage
delayed marriages increased premarital sex and the number of illegitimate children

growing number of orphanages

Arranged Marriages

Marriage tended to be arranged in that the parents met and discussed the terms of the marriage before the preparations for the wedding became official
Men and women could legally resist a marriage that they were coerced into by their parents

Family Size

western European family was nuclear consisting of a father and mother and two to four children who survived into adulthood

women produced six to seven children but one-third died as infants and one-half by their teens

the larger household included in-laws, servants, laborers, and boarders

Birth Control

very few methods, other than abstinence were effective
church condemned male withdrawal before ejaculation
church opposed birth control methods

West Nursing

practice of hiring wet nurses to suckle newborn children was common with the nobility because it was convenient
infant mortality was higher in infants who were wet nursed because often times the woman providing the service was not in as good of health as the infant’s own mother and because the wet nurse’s milk supply was shared
lactating women were not considered fit for sexual activity according to the church

Loving Families

Relationships in families in Western Europe sometimes seemed cold and distant

children between the ages of eight and thirteen were routinely sent from their homes into apprenticeships, school, or employment in the homes or businesses of family friends or relatives
widowers and widows often remarried within a few months of the passing of their spouses

Section Eleven: Literary Imagination in Transition

Miguel de Cervantes: Rejection of Idealism

Spanish literature reflects the religious and political history of Spain in this period
Influences on Spanish literature

traditional Catholic teaching
piety of Spanish rulers

Spain’s leaders attempted to coalesce piety and political power and emphasized honor, loyalty, and chivalric virtues

in most Spanish works of literature from this period, the hero goes through a series of tests of character

literature remained more Catholic and medieval than in England or Germany

Cervantes (1547-1616)

considered Spain’s greatest writer
wrote Don Quixote in 1603 while imprisoned for money laundering

satire of the chivalric romances then popular in Spain
protagonist, Don Quixote, is an unstable middle-aged man who becomes crazy from reading too many romances

he comes to believe he was an aspiring knight who had to prove his worthiness through great deeds

Don Quixote’s squire, Sancho Panza, watches with skepticism as his lord does battle with a windmill that he mistakes for a Dragon
Cervantes juxtaposed the down-to-earth realism of Sancho Panza with the old-fashioned religious idealism of Don Quixote and

the reader is left with the impression that Cervantes admired both sensibilities

William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age

Shakespeare blended the styles of classical comedies and tragedies, medieval morality plays, and contemporary Italian short stories in order to develop English drama

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