The Consolidation of Latin America summary
The Consolidation of Latin America summary
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The Consolidation of Latin America summary
Chapter 31 The Consolidation of Latin America, 1830-1920
- Introduction
European imperialism in the nineteenth century swallowed up much of Southeast Asia, India, Africa, and the Pacific. Three areas escaped full inclusion in the imperialist net East Asia, Russia, and the Middle East. More surprisingly, Latin America, one of the earliest European colonial ventures, successfully cast off European political control and gained independence.
Latin American political leaders were shaped in the era of Enlightenment beliefs and accepted concepts common in the West, such as progress and rights in property. Despite some common ideology, the new nations faced numerous problems inherited from their colonial past.
- From Colonies to Nations
- Introduction
By the late eighteenth century, Creole elites in Latin America were prepared to separate from Spain, but fear of racial and class conflict prevented successful action. Revolution occurred only after the Napoleonic wars disrupted the government of Spain.
- Causes of Political Change
The revolutions in Latin America were part of a series of rebellions from the American Revolution through the French Revolution. In 1791, slaves under Toussaint L'Overture successfully overthrew the colonial government of St. Domingue and established the independent republic of Haiti. The more radical aspects of the French revolution and the specter of black rebellion in Haiti frightened the Creole elites of Latin America. What precipitated rebellion was the breakdown of the Spanish monarchy during the Napoleonic wars. In Latin America, Creoles set up independent governments that claimed to rule in the name of the exiled Spanish monarch.
- Spanish-American Independence Struggles
Rebellion in Mexico began in 1810 under the leadership of Father Miguel de Hidalgo, who called on the support of mestizos and Indians. Hidalgo's movement failed for lack of Creole support, but a second revolutionary movement with more Creole support broke out in 1820. Under a Creole military officer, Augustin de Iturbide, the revolutionaries seized Mexico City and proclaimed Iturbide emperor in 1821. Mexico initially maintained control over Central America but separated from its southern neighbors in 1838. In northern South America, Simon Bolivar emerged as the leader of the revolutionary forces. Between 1817 and 1822 he defeated Spanish forces in Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador to form the new nation of Gran Colombia.
After 1830, these nations split into independent states. In southern South America, the revolutionary leader was Jose de San Martin. An Argentinean, San Martin mobilized resistance in his native colony, then crossed the Andes to Chile. By 1824, San Martin had carried the revolution into the most conservative colony of Peru and defeated the Spanish forces there. All of Spanish South America had won independence by 1825.
- Brazilian Independence
Independence in Brazil was achieved by different methods. Early movements for independence failed because of the general fear of slave uprisings. In 1807, the entire Portuguese royal family fled their home country in the face of a French invasion and emigrated to Brazil, where a government in exile was set up. The Portuguese king, Dom Jo o VI, ruled his empire from Rio de Janeiro. Brazilian ports were opened to international commerce. When the king returned to Portugal in 1820, his son proclaimed independence in Brazil in 1822. Brazil became a monarchy under Dom Pedro I.
- New Nations Confront Old and New Problems
- Introduction
Most of the independent nations accepted the need to establish representative governments, rights to private property, and free trade. There was less agreement over the position of the Roman Catholic Church in the new states. Revolutionary ideals led to the abolition of slavery in all states except Brazil and the remaining Spanish colonies. Voting rights tended to be restricted by race to favor Creoles, and women remained without voting rights. Indian populations and people of mixed origins remained outside the egalitarian principles of the new governments.
- Political Fragmentation
Mexico quickly abandoned its experiment with monarchy and established a republic in 1832. Its government remained unstable until the 1860s. In Central America initial attempts to form a unified government gave way to individual states in 1838. Cuba and Puerto Rico remained within the orbit of Spanish colonialism. Consolidation also failed in South America. New Granada, Bolivar's attempt to unify northern South America, failed in 1830. The attempts of Rio de la Plata to transform revolutionary leadership into a political union failed. Paraguay, Uruguay and Chile remained independent. Peru and Bolivia temporarily united, but formed separate governments in 1839. Poor transportation and communication networks magnified problems of national integration.
- "Caudillos", Politics and the Church
Decades of war gave rise to regional military figures, or caudillos, who dominated local areas and sometimes seized national governments. Caudillos often operated out of self- interest, but they were capable of seeking support from regional elites or from Indians, peasants, or the poor.
Disagreements also arose within the new governments over the degree of centralization the new republican governments should have. Federalists wished regional governments to establish policies, while centrists wanted powerful, central administrations. Liberals tended to support federalist policies, while political conservatives wanted centralized governments and supported corporate institutions, such as the Catholic Church. Liberals attempted to limit the role of the Church in civil affairs. Political parties representing these points of view sprang up in many of the new republics. Regardless of political view, leaders in Latin America tended to come from the class of wealthy landowners. Rapid political change was the rule in Latin America in the first half century after independence. Constitutions and leadership came and went swiftly. Brazil, with its monarchy, was perhaps the most stable government in the region.
- Latin-American Economies and World Markets, 1820 - 1870
- Introduction
Great Britain's determination to recognize Latin American independence forestalled European plans to restore the Spanish empire. The United States also supported the independence movement through the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. Britain's support for the new nations was tied to the opening of trade with Latin America. Britain rapidly replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner. The dominance of the British hindered the development of Latin American industries and reinforced the economic dependence of Latin America in the world trade network.
- Mid-Century Stagnation
From 1820 to 1850, the post-independence economy of Latin America remained stagnant. After 1850, in response to European demand for Latin American products, the economy quickened.
Enhanced trade permitted greater state development of important infrastructure, such as roads and railroads. The pattern was established that the Latin American economy was strictly dependent on levels of imports supported through the world trade network. Uneasy alliances between peasants and conservatives prevented rapid economic change proposed by the urban middle class.
- Economic Resurgence and Liberal Politics
In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, another surge in the European economy produced greater demand for Latin American products. Economies expanded rapidly. The economic growth created support for liberal policies and led to liberal governments after 1860. Attempts to impose European economic models on Latin American economies often failed. Immigrants from Europe entered Latin America to fill a labor demand that ignored Indian populations. Wealthy landowners continued to monopolize the countryside at the expense of small farmers.
- Mexico: Instability and Foreign Intervention
The federalist constitution of 1824 failed to address the inequitable distribution of land or the status of the Indian population of Mexico. It was quickly abandoned in favor of military leadership. For much of the period after 1835, Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna served as the most important military and political figure in Mexico. Santa Anna enjoyed mixed results in fighting off foreign attempts to intervene in Mexico. Anglo-American settlers in the northern province of Texas rebelled and declared independence. Failure to suppress the Texas independence movement led to the United States' annexation of the region in 1845. The United States won the Mexican-American War and forced the cession of Texas, California, and much of Mexico's territory north of the Rio Grande River.
Mexico's failures in foreign policy at last led to the removal of Santa Anna as the chief political figure of the republic. Liberal rebellion against the caudillo resulted in Santa Anna's ouster and the creation of a liberal constitution. Conservatives rejected the liberal constitution and turned to France as an ally. French forces overthrew the republic and placed Maximilian von Habsburg on the throne as emperor in 1862. When French forces were withdrawn, liberals returned to power under Benito Juarez in 1867. Juarez continued to govern until his death in 1872.
- Argentina: The Port and the Nation
The port of Buenos Aires dominated the region of Rio de la Plata. In the 1820s, a liberal government was established in the port that sought to stimulate the economy.
The leader뭩 preference for a strong, central government provoked the opposition of cattlemen in the plains outside the port. By 1831, a conservative government under Juan Manuel de Rosas replaced the liberals. Rosas's federalism favored the ranchers at the expense of Indians. After Rosas's fall in 1852, a period of political confusion ensued until the creation of a united Argentine Republic in 1862. Liberal reformers sought to manipulate the economic boom after the 1860s.
Using profits from increased trade, the liberal government established education systems, built roads, and constructed railroads. The liberal government carried out the final conquest of Indians in Argentina.
- The Brazilian Empire
In Brazil, a functioning republic existed behind the facade of monarchy. Independence was achieved in 1822 under Dom Pedro I, who ruled as king. When Dom Pedro I was deposed in 1831, a series of regencies ruled in the name of the young Dom Pedro II. Between 1831 and 1840, regional governments opposed centralized rule from Rio de Janeiro. After 1840, Dom Pedro II ruled in his own name as a liberal, who sought to increase economic growth. The Brazilian economy was revolutionized by the emergence of coffee as an export crop.
As coffee production expanded, slavery was intensified as a source of coercive labor. As with other liberal governments of the period, Dom Pedro II improved the country's infrastructure and sought foreign investments to capitalize internal projects. Extensive European immigration into Brazil broadened the labor force and reduced the need for slavery. In 1888, slavery was finally abolished. Weakened by long participation in an unpopular war and by opposition from the Church, the monarchy did not long survive the abolition of slavery. In 1889, a military coup deposed the emperor and established a republic.
- Societies in Search of Themselves
- Introduction
There was tension in Latin American culture between the heritage of Europe and the need to express Americanism.
- Cultural Expression After Independence
The end of Spanish colonial dominance opened Latin America to other European influences in the decades after independence. French neoclassical tradition was particularly influential. Romanticism shifted Latin American attentions to symbols of Americanism, such as Indians, gauchos, and slaves. Historical studies reflected the European concepts of positivism and progress. By the 1870s, the political dominance of liberalism produced more realistic literary efforts, which often criticized social and political systems. Popular culture remained largely unaffected by trends among the elite.
- Old Patterns of Gender, Class and Race
Women, many of whom had been active in the independence movements, gained little during the nineteenth century. They were excluded from active participation in politics and remained subject to patriarchal authority in their households. The one area of advance for women was broader access to public education and subsequently to positions as teachers. By the end of the nineteenth century, educated women were in the forefront of the nascent feminist movement in Latin America. Although legal distinctions were often removed, the old social hierarchy based on color and ethnicity was tacitly retained. Indians remained virtually outside the social system of Creoles and mestizos. Socially and economically, the liberal decades led to increasing control of resources, including land, by an elite of white Creoles. After the 1870s, economic change and immigration fostered the creation of greater urban centers, but Latin America remained predominantly agrarian and dependent on the world trade system.
- The Great Boom, 1880-1920
- Introduction
The Latin American export economy produced a social and political alliance between large landowners, miners, and export merchants, all of whom depended on commerce for prosperity.
Although commodities varied from one nation to the next, all of Latin America depended on exports to Europe. Such complete dependence made the Latin American economy vulnerable to shifts in market demand and prices. Exports dramatically increased between 1870 and 1900. The expanding economy attracted capital from abroad, both from Europe and the United States.
Although foreign capital provided the impetus for expansion, it placed Latin American industries and transportation corporations in foreign hands.
- Mexico and Argentina: Examples of Economic Transformation
Porfirio Diaz, one of Juarez's generals, was elected president of the Mexican republic. As was typical of liberal regimes, Diaz's government attracted foreign investment, built up the nation's infrastructure, and initiated industrialization. Although the appearance of democracy was retained, D?z's government suppressed all political opposition. Much of the economic growth in Mexico was at the expense of urban laborers and the peasantry, both of which were largely Indian.
In 1910, popular dissatisfaction with D?z's regime resulted in the Mexican Revolution. Argentina also had a liberal government whose popularity depended on maintaining the boom in the export economy. Unlike Mexico, where labor was provided by indigenous peoples, Argentina's labor force expanded through immigration from Europe. European-born workers brought with them socialism, and a Socialist Party emerged in Argentina in the 1890s. A series of strikes followed by government repression typified the first decades of the twentieth century. The middle-class Radical Party promised political reform and enlightened labor policies to gain power in 1916.
When faced with strikes, it, too, reacted repressively. The models of Mexico and Argentina oligarchies composed of the traditional aristocracy and the middle classes uneasily presiding over disgruntled laborers and peasants could be found in other Latin American states where liberal modernization met resistance.
- Uncle Sam Goes South
American capitalists turned to Latin America for investment after the American Civil War. The United States' first armed intervention in Latin America, the Spanish-American War between 1895 and 1898, was intended to open the door to the valuable sugar plantations of the Caribbean. As a result of the war, the former Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico were reduced to dependency on the United States. When Colombia proved reluctant to support American plans in Central America, the United States backed Panama's independence movement in return for extensive rights to build a canal in the new nation. Latin American nations became increasingly critical of U.S. intervention in the region.
- Conclusion: New Nations, Old Problems
During the nineteenth century, the former colonies of Latin America constructed new nations. There were many difficulties. Latin America was forced to forge economies in a world trade network already dominated by European nations. The new nations carried with them colonial social systems that were strictly hierarchical and in which a small Creole elite dominated the economy and politics. Indians, former slaves, and peasants shared little in the economic expansion of the second half of the century. In a sense, Latin America was the first region of the world to undergo the problems of decolonization.
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The Consolidation of Latin America summary
CHAPTER 25: THE CONSOLIDATION OF
LATIN AMERICA, 1830 – 1920
Pages 594 – 619
- SUMMARY
- From Colonies to Nations
Internal developments and the international situation of the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars set independence movements in motion. In Haiti, the ideas of the French Revolution led to a revolt of the slaves and the independence of the country. Hidalgo in Mexico, Bolivar in northern South America, and San Martin in the southern part of the continent led successful revolutions. In Brazil, an independence monarchy was created.
New Nations Confront Old and New Problems
The new nations confronted different problems: social inequalities, political representation, the role of the church, and regionalism. These problems led to political fragmentation. Local strongmen, representing various interests and their own ambitions, rose to prominence and dominated nations for decades.
Latin American Economies and World Markets, 1820 – 1870
In the mid-19th century, Latin American economies stagnated in the aftermath of the wars of independence. Dependence on exports of primary products created neo-colonial ties. Toward mid-century, a new prosperity began as some nations found new markets for their exports. The revenues earned allowed liberal governments to advocate a variety of social and political changes. By the end of the century Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina illustrate the general patterns from political instability or economic stagnation to the emergence of stable liberal regimes.
Societies in Search of Themselves
There was a tension in cultural life between European influences and the desire to express an American reality, or between elite and Indian or local culture. Social change came very slowly for Indians, blacks, and women, but by the end of the century economic resurgence was beginning to have social effects.
The Great Boom, 1880 – 1920
Between 1880 and 1920, Latin America, such as certain areas of Asia and Africa, experienced a tremendous spurt of economic growth, stimulated by the increasing demand in industrializing Europe and the United States for raw materials, foodstuffs, and specialized tropical crops. By the end of the 19th century, the United States was beginning to intervene directly in Latin American affairs.
Conclusion: New Nations, Old Problems
During the 19th century, the nations of Latin America moved from the status of colonies to that of independence nation-states. The process was sometimes exhilarating and often painful, but during the course of the century, these nations were able to create governments and to begin to address many social and economic problems. These problems were inherited from the colonial era and were intensified by internal political and ideological conflicts and foreign intervention. Moreover, the Latin American nations had to revive their economies after their struggles for independence, and confront their position within the world economic system as suppliers of agricultural products and consumers of manufactured goods. Political and social changes were many, and pressures for change came from a variety of sources, such as progressive politicians, modernizing military men, a growing urban population, dissatisfied workers, and disadvantaged peasants.
CHAPTER REVIEW
What causes led to the revolutions for independence?
How did Latin American nations achieve their independence?
How was Haiti’s war for independence different from others in the area?
What factors led to political instability in Latin America?
How did the heritage of the past hinder the newly independent nations?
What was the role of the military and church in Latin American politics?
What economic problems did Latin American nations encounter?
How did the world trade system and foreign intervention affect Latin America?
Compare and contrast the development of Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico.
What social tensions and inequalities existed in Latin America?
What paths did the developing cultures of Latin America take?
How did world economic concerns transform Latin America from 1880 – 1920?
What was the role of the United States in Latin America?
VOCABULARY
Creoles (Criollos)
Toussaint L’Overture
Porteños
Caudillos
Centralists, Federalists
Monroe Doctrine
Positivism
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (1848)
Mexican-American War
La Reforma
Fazendas
Underdeveloped
Modernization theory
Dependency theory
Spanish-American War
PHOTO ESSAY: New Nations, Old Problems (Pages 594, 598, 605, 608-609, 611-612)
Although Latin American nations were newly independent, this freedom did not solve older problems associated with colonialism. How is each problem depicted in the above photos?
Race:
Western heritage?
Indian heritage?
African heritage?
Military and violence?
Economics?
Social stratification?
DOCUMENT ANALYSIS: Hispanic Heritage (Page 702 – 703)
Document Analyses
Who wrote each? (Attribution includes biographical references)
What were the authors’ points of view?
How reliable are the documents? Why?
What were the intents or purposes behind the documents?
Who were the intended audiences?
What are the documents’ tones?
Comparisons
How do the two documents agree? Disagree?
What might account for these differences?
What biases do you detect?
How do they affect your understanding or the reliabilities of the authors?
Conclusions
What criticisms of Spanish rule did Bolivar mention?
What problems did he foresee for an independent Latin America?
What did Sarmiento admire and dislike about Latin American culture?
What ideas and forces do both men support and oppose?
How might these two traditions affect Latin American history?
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Which group led the independence movements in most of Latin America?
Spanish and Portuguese officials born in the Iberian peninsula
American-born whites or creoles
Indians
Mestizos or people of mixed Indian and European descent
Mulattos or people of mixed African and European descent
All of these events helped cause Latin American independence EXCEPT:
the Congress of Vienna.
the American Revolution.
the French Revolution.
the slave revolt in Haiti.
Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal.
Haiti’s independence differed from other Latin American movements in that
it began as a slave revolt against slave owners and led to independence.
the British landed troops to assist with the movement for independence.
the United States supported the Haitians in their revolution with supplies.
France and Napoleon welcomed and recognized Haiti’s independence.
Spain supported the movement for independence.
Leaders of Latin American independence revolts were generally
monarchists, who wanted monarchs to govern their states.
radicals, who supported the ideas of the French Jacobins.
moderates, who wanted some democratic institutions but feared the masses.
liberals, who wanted universal male suffrage.
conservative republicans, who favored the church and rich landowners.
Brazil’s independence differed from the rest of Latin America in that it was
the result of a successful slave rebellion.
not supported by the locally born European population.
much earlier than the other Latin American revolutions.
declared and led by the Portuguese regent in Brazil, who became emperor.
extremely violent with conflicting armies led by different factions.
Throughout Latin America, the Indian population
generally supported the new republican governments.
remained largely outside the national political life.
revolted against Europeans and later the newly independent governments.
acquired rights in some countries but not all.
was indifferent to whoever ruled.
The new maps and divisions of Latin American countries after 1820 reflected
old Indian languages and cultures.
racial and linguistic divisions.
no relationship to older colonial boundaries.
geographic barriers, the great distances, and isolated regions.
years of warfare between the newly independent states.
In many 19th century Latin American nations, governments were in the hands of
independent leaders or army commanders, who ruled regions by force.
the Roman Catholic Church and its bishops.
European born aristocratic elites, who survived the wars of independence.
monarchists.
leaders sympathetic to the Indians and working poor.
What statement about 19th century Latin American politics is a FACT?
Centralists supported local autonomy and states’ rights.
Liberals wanted a centralized government with absolute control.
Federalists wanted tax and commercial policies set by local governments.
Conservatives supported equal rights and the franchise for all citizens.
Most Latin Americans were monarchists and wanted royal dynasties.
The Monroe Doctrine
was supported by Europeans eager to acquire lands in Latin America.
supported a return of Latin America to Spanish and Portuguese control.
encouraged European intervention in Latin America.
was initially resented by Latin Americans, who felt the U.S. was a bully.
was proclaimed by the U.S. and supported by British navies.
The country that had the greatest commercial and financial investments and interests in Latin America in the 19th century was
France.
Spain.
Great Britain.
Portugal.
the United States.
The 19th century economies of Latin America can be described as largely
autarkic and self-sufficient.
dominated by slave labor.
unconnected and unaffected by the larger world economy.
industrialized with a large population of factory workers.
dependent on the export of primary products such as coffee and minerals.
The economic resurgence in Latin America at the end of the 19th century
led to the rise of a powerful middle class.
encouraged liberal reforms modeled after American or European examples.
decreased the influence of large landowners.
led to a rise in the living standards for the poor, ex-slaves, and Indians.
discouraged foreign investments and European immigration to the area.
The Roman Catholic Church in Latin America
sided with the ruling elites and usually opposed liberal reforms.
supported the Indians and their concerns.
was a leader of the liberal movements and their reforms.
was generally neutral in disputes and acted as a moderator.
had little influence with any groups and was marginalized in society.
Brazil was different than most Latin American nations in the 19th century for all of these reasons EXCEPT:
it was a monarchy until 1889.
Africans, mestizos, and mulattos outnumbered people of European descent.
Brazil remained a centralist state with few local autonomous institutions.
slavery was permitted until abolished in 1889.
Brazil received millions of European immigrants after 1850.
After independence Latin America nations
emancipated women and granted them rights denied during colonial times.
ended legal systems of discrimination but strong social barriers persisted.
gave Indians the right to reclaim their lost lands.
prohibited educational opportunities for women and Indians.
saw increased conflict between the old landed elite and the commercial middle classes.
All of these led to increased U.S. interest in Central America and the Caribbean EXCEPT:
the American acquisition of Puerto Rico following the Spanish-American War.
the desire for Latin American imports especially coffee, sugar, and oil.
investments in Mexico, Central America, and Caribbean economies.
the desire to build a canal between the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea.
the suppression of the slave trade and slavery in the region.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Compare and contrast Latin American independence movements with the French or American Revolutions.
How did Latin American society, economics, and politics change from colonial times to the 1920s?
Compare and contrast the Industrial Revolution in Europe with economic and social changes in Latin America.
Compare and contrast Latin American economic dependence on the West with European colonialism in Africa.
Compare and contrast Brazil with Argentina or Mexico between 1820 and 1920.
Compare and contrast the British and American roles in Latin America.
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