The Last Nomadic Challenges summary

 

 

The Last Nomadic Challenges summary

 

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The Last Nomadic Challenges summary

Chapter 20  The Last Nomadic Challenges

  1. Introduction

With the Mongol conquests beginning in the thirteenth century, pastoral nomads enjoyed one last century of political dominance over much of Eurasia. The Mongol empire stretched from China to eastern Europe. Although the Mongols have often been depicted as savage barbarians, they imposed peace on the regions they came to dominate and enabled the establishment of a Eurasian-wide system of trade and cultural exchange.

  1. The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan
    1. Introduction

The traditional Mongol tribal divisions were finally overcome by Chinggis Khan in the thirteenth century. The Mongols were typical pastoral nomads. They depended on herds of goats and sheep for their livelihood, engaged in trade, and were renowned horsemen and women. The basic unit of Mongol society was the tribe composed of clans. These social units were fragile and seldom united for joint action. Courage and the ability to construct tribal alliances were valued traits of Mongol leadership. Only powerful leaders could survive.

    1. The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan

The Mongols had enjoyed brief periods of dominance in the fourth and tenth centuries. Chinggis Khan's great- grandfather had defeated the Qin dynasty of China in the twelfth century, but his successors did not enjoy his military success. Chinggis Khan's father, a moderately successful Mongol leader, was poisoned by tribal rivals. Left to fend for his family as a minor, Chinggis Khan was deserted by most clan heads. Temporarily captured by his enemies, Chinggis Khan eventually escaped and joined the band of a more powerful leader. As a young man, he was able to achieve a reputation as a successful military leader and attracted clan chiefs to his encampment. In 1206, the Mongol chieftains elected Chinggis Khan khagan, or supreme ruler of the Mongol tribes.

    1. Building the Mongol War Machine

Mongol warriors were not only excellent horsemen but also accomplished archers. Mongol armies were entirely cavalry and depended on speed and mobility in making their assaults. Chinggis Khan reorganized the tribal armies of the Mongols into units called tumens containing 10,000 men. Each army was also divided into heavy cavalry, light cavalry, and lightly armored scouts who preceded the main forces. Chinggis Khan introduced severe discipline that mandated death for any soldier who left his unit in battle. Spies and informers produced information that resulted in the creation of accurate maps. The later Mongol forces were equipped with gunpowder and artillery.

    1. Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan

Chinggis Khan launched a massive series of assaults in 1207. He defeated the kingdom of Xi Xia in northern China, then attacked the Qin empire of the Jurchen. At first frustrated by the fortified Chinese cities, the Mongols soon developed siege weapons that rendered the towns vulnerable to prolonged assault. Towns that chose to resist conquest were sacked and the townsmen slaughtered. Towns that surrendered immediately were subjected to tribute, but often spared.

    1. First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China

From his early successes in northern China, Chinggis Khan sent his victorious armies westward to attack the Khwarazm Empire. When the empire of Muhammad Shah II refused to surrender, the Mongols conquered Khwarazm and incorporated the Turkish horsemen of the region into his armies. By 1227, the Mongol empire stretched from northern China to the shores of the Persian Gulf.

    1. Life Under the Mongol Imperium

Mongol rule was generally tolerant. Chinggis Khan established the capital of his empire at Karakorum, to which he summoned the intellectuals from his conquered kingdoms. The Mongols offered religious toleration to Confucians, Buddhists, Daoists, and Muslims. The Mongol administration drew from examples in both the Islamic and Chinese world. Chinggis Khan formulated a legal code intended to end tribal and clan divisions among the Mongols. Under the Mongol peace, trade and cultural exchange flourished.

    1. The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire

In 1226, Chinggis Khan turned once again to the rebellious kingdom of Xi-Xia. Just as his armies proved victorious, the Mongol khagan died. His body was carried to a secret place in the steppes for burial. Chinggis Khan's three sons and a grandson divided the Mongol empire among themselves. Ogedei, the khagan's third son, was named his successor. For nearly a decade, Ogedei continued to direct Mongol campaigns.

  1. The Mongol Drive to the West
    1. Introduction

The subjugation of the Christian lands of eastern Europe was entrusted to the Golden Horde, while the task of conquering the remainder of the Islamic world fell to the Ilkhan Empire. In 1236, Chinggis Khan's grandson, Batu, led the first Mongol invasion of Russia. The Russian princes, who failed to unite in the face of the nomadic threat, were defeated individually. Just as it appeared all of Russia might be conquered, the Mongols withdrew in 1238. Mongol armies returned in 1240 and completed the reduction of the major Russian cities. Of all the great urban centers of Russia, only Novgorod was spared.

    1. Russia in Bondage

The Mongol conquest of Russia reduced the Russian princes to tribute-payers. Payments fell heavily on the peasants, who found themselves reduced to serfdom. Until the mid- nineteenth century, serfdom was typical of Russian agricultural labor. Some Russian cities, such as Moscow, recovered their fortunes by the increased trade the Mongol empire permitted. After 1328, Moscow also profited by serving as the tribute collector for the Mongol overlords. The head of the Orthodox Church in Russia selected Moscow as his capital.
In 1380, the princes of Moscow turned against the Mongols and led an alliance of Russian forces that defeated the Mongols at the battle of Kulikova. The victory broke the hold of the Mongols on Russia, although the nomads continued to make raids into the fifteenth century. The Mongol conquest of Russia ensured the central position of Moscow and the Orthodox Church, led to changes in Russian military organization, and revised the political concepts of Russian rulers. The period of Mongol dominance also cut Russia off from western Europe both politically and culturally.

    1. Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe

The first Christian reaction to Mongol invasions was positive. They were convinced that the Mongols were potential allies against the Muslims. The assault on Russia proved that earlier optimism about Mongol intentions was a miscalculation. The successful conquest of Hungary alerted Europe to the potential danger of Mongol assault. Just as it appeared the eastern door to Europe lay open, the Mongol hordes withdrew to Asia to resolve the succession crisis that followed the death of Ogedei.

    1. The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartlands

The conquest of the Muslim heartlands of the Middle East fell to Hulegu, another grandson of Chinggis Khan. In 1258, the Mongols captured and destroyed Baghdad, killing the last of the Abbasid caliphs. The Mongol invasion and the consequent destruction of many cities destroyed the focal points of Islamic culture. Without a central administration, the regional Muslim commanders suffered repeated defeats. Only in 1260 did the Mamluk army of Egypt defeat the Mongols at Ain Jalut. Baibars, the Mamluk general, was able to hold off further Mongol invasions. Lack of unity among the Mongol hordes also caused Hulegu to end his assault on Islamic territories.

    1. The Mongol Impact on Europe and the Islamic World

The Mongol invasions caused Europeans to alter their military organization and to adopt the use of gunpowder. Mongol conquests facilitated trade across the Asiatic steppes between Europe and Asia. The Mongol armies may also have transmitted the plague infection from Asia to European populations.

  1. The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History
    1. Introduction

The Mongol conquest of China lasted only a century, but had enduring consequences. Temporarily, the Mongols opened China to external influences from the other civilized regions of Eurasia. The Mongol conquest of China was commanded by Kubilai, a grandson of Chinggis Khan. The southern Song dynasty proved difficult to overcome. The conquest took from 1235 to 1279. Even before the conquest was completed, Kubilai Khan changed the name of his dynasty to Yuan. In order to retain a separate identity, however, the new ruler passed laws forbidding Chinese from learning the Mongol script and intermarriage.Under the Mongol Yuan dynasty, a new social order emerged. At the top of the hierarchy were the Mongols and their allies, then the northern Chinese, then the southern Chinese and other ethnic groups. The central administration was reserved for Mongols and their allies, although the Chinese continued to control the local administrative network.

    1. Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Cultures

Mongol women refused to recognize the reduced status accorded females in Confucian society. They refused to adopt the practice of foot-binding, and they retained their rights to property and control within the household. The main influence of Mongol women after the Mongols settled in China was Chabi, the wife of Kubilai Khan. She advised her husband in many diplomatic and political matters.
Ultimately, living in China eroded the power and freedom of Mongol women.

    1. Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influences

The Yuan dynasty continued to patronize a full range of scholars and artists from other lands within the Mongol empire. Muslims and Islamic culture were particularly prominent in the Mongol court in China. As elsewhere, the Mongol overlords of China preserved religious toleration and admitted Nestorian and western Christians, as well as Buddhists and Daoists, within their kingdom. It was during the reign of Kubilai Khan that Marco Polo of Italy made his journey to China.

    1. Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance

Most of the Chinese scholar-gentry continued to regard the Yuan as barbarians. The Mongol custom of elevating foreigners over Chinese within the central administration further exacerbated the feeling of alienation. The Mongols also elevated the social status of artisans and merchants, who had traditionally ranked below the peasantry in the Confucian social hierarchy. Cities flourished during the Mongol regime in China. Urban culture catered to the Mongols and merchants. Only with respect to his attempts to improve the social and economic condition of the Chinese peasantry did the scholar-gentry approve of Kubilai Khan's social policies.

    1. The Fall of the House of Yuan

Eventually the Chinese began to raise rebellions against the Mongol conquerors. Mongol military reputation suffered after defeats at the hands of the Japanese and Vietnamese. Decades in China softened the Mongols. Following the death of Kubilai Khan, no vigorous successors reigned in China. As dissatisfaction with the Yuan dynasty grew, the scholar- gentry called on the people to oust their oppressors.
Popular dissatisfaction spawned secret societies, such as the White Lotus Society, dedicated to the overthrow of the Yuan. When the government was unable to suppress local violence, the Yuan rulers began to flee to central Asia. Order was restored under Ju Yuanzhang, a peasant and the founder of the Ming dynasty.

  1. Conclusion: The Mongol Legacy and an Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur

Mongol invasions were devastating, but the conquests paved the way for the dominance of Moscow in Russia, ended regimes in the Islamic heartlands, created a trading zone that linked all of the civilized regions of Eurasia, and imposed an effective and tolerant government over much of Asia. Following the fragmentation of the Mongol empire, a second nomadic expansion occurred under Timur-i Lang. In the 1360s his armies devastated a wide region of the Middle East, India, and southern Russia. There were few positive results of Timur's short-lived empire. After his death in 1405, his kingdom rapidly disintegrated.

 

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The Last Nomadic Challenges summary

Chapter 14: The Last Great Nomadic Challenges: From Chinggis Khan to Timur

  • 1200’s to 1405: pinnacle of Mongol military might
  • Mongol forces conquered central Asia, northern China, and eastern Persia, then the rest of Tibet, China, Persia, Iraq, much of Asia Minor, and all of southern Russia
  • 1227: Death of Chinggis Khan and empire as divided into four khanates
  • Written histories commonly depict Mongols as barbaric hordes
  • At the peak of their power, the domains of the Mongol khans made up a vast realm in which once-hostile peoples lived together in peace and most religions were tolerated.
  • Mongols laid the basis for increased global interaction.

The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan

  • Mongols epitomized nomadic society and culture
  • Primarily pastoral: sheep and goats
  • Strong Mongol ponies essential to their way of life
  • Basic unit= tribe, divided into kin-related clans who camped and herded together on a regular basis. 
  • Leaders were elected by free men of the group, although women could still be heard at tribal councils
  • The weak and old could be abandoned if they no longer were contributing to the clan.

The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan

  • Kabul Khan: great-grandfather of Chinggis: 12th century led a Mongol alliance and had a victory over the Qin dynasty
  • Chinggis Khan: born Temujin in the 1170’s- his father was poisoned and Temujin had to lead the family at an early age.  His encampment was repeatedly attacked and he was taken prisoner in 1182 by a rival tribe.  He escaped and then joined the band of a more powerful Mongol chieftain. 
  • 1206 at a kuriltai (meeting of all of the Mongol chieftains), Temujin was elected the Khagan, supreme ruler, of the Mongol tribes.

Building the Mongol War Machine

  • Preferred weapon of Mongol warriors was their short-bow
  • Mongol armies were entirely cavalry so they could move rapidly
  • Loyalty to Chinggis overshadowed previous vendettas and quarrels
  • Tumens: Basic Mongol fighting units made up of 10,000 warriors.  Each was further divided into units of 1000, 100, and 10 warriors.  Commanders were responsible for training, arming, and disciplining the cavalrymen under their charge.  Divided into heavy and light cavalry
  • Separate messenger force for communication
  • Strict and summary justice for deserters (execution)
  • Cartography improved, extensive spy network.
  • New weapons: flaming and exploding arrows, gunpowder projectiles, and later bronze cannons.

Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan

  • Chinggis Khan once said his greatest pleasure in life was making war, defeating enemies, forcing “their beloved to weep, riding on their horses, embracing their wives and daughters.”
  • Attacked the Xia Xia kingdom in northwest China, then the Qin Empire. 
  • Siege weapons were key: including fiery goo made with Dolphin bladder.
  • Mongols usually spared famous scholars and artisans b/c they were useful, but resisting townspeople were slaughtered or sold into slavery.
  • Surrendering towns were usually spared but had to pay hefty tribute.

First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China

  • 1219: Chinggis Khan annexed Kara Khitai
  • Muhammad Shah II- Turkic ruler of the Khwarazm Empire to the West
  • Muhammad Shah II: Assaulted Chinggis’ envoys (Don’t shoot the messenger): led to war
  • Use of cavalry, feigned retreat and mass attack

Life Under the Mongol Imperium

  • Chinggis was illiterate
  • Chinggis established a capital at Karakorum
    • On the steppes
  • Gathered information from artisans, Confucian scholars, and Daoist holymen
  • Religion: Shamanistic (focused on nature spirits)
  • Administration developed
  • Record-keeping: standardization of laws

The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire

  • Chinggis ordered that the Tangut civilization be wiped off the face of the earth.
  • Chinggis died in August 1227
  • Chinggis’ body returned to Mongolia- humans and animals were killed that crossed its path on journey
  • Empire divided between 3 sons and 1 grandson (Batu)
  • Kuriltai at Karakorum: Ogedei (3rd son) elected Grand Khan: further campaigns and conquests

The Mongol Drive to the West

  • Mongol raids into Georgia and across Russian Steppe
  • Christian lands were ripe for the taking
  • Golden Horde: nickname of the Mongols
  • Batu, Grandson of Chinggis- began invasion of Russia in 1236
  • Russia was lacking solidarity to resist the Mongols
  • 1236: Batu: 120,000 cavalrymen into Russia
  • Tatars/ Tartars (people from hell): nickname for the Mongols
  • Mongols had a successful winter invasion of Russia
  • 2nd Mongol invasion in 1240: Kiev fell
  • Prince Alexander Nevskii submitted to Mongol demands

Russia in Bondage

  • Russian princes as vassals of khan of Golden Horde and paid tribute
  • Led to feudalism/ serfdom for some
  • Some peasants fled to remote areas
  • City of Moscow grew in strength as tribute collectors for Mongols
  • Moscow: center of Orthodox Church “3rd Rome”
  • Moscow eventually organized a force that defeated the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikora
  • Russia because of Mongol rule, was isolated from Europe and the Renaissance and Reformation there.

Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe

  • Prester John: mythical rich and powerful Christian monarch, some said in Africa or Asia, whose kingdom had been cut off from Europe during Muslim Expansion.  Forces would eventually strike Muslims from rear and reunite with Europe according to this legend
  • Some Europeans thought Chinngis was Prester John
  • But then the Mongols attacked Russia (orthodox) proving they were in fact a threat to Christendom
  • King Bela of Hungary: dismissed Mongol envoys and refused to submit to Mongols
  • Only thing that stopped Mongol raid of rest of Western Europe was the death of Ogedei, so Batu had to retreat to prepare to struggle for succession

The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartland

  • Hulegu, grandson of Chinggis and ruler of Ilkhan portions of Mongol Empire who worked to conquer Muslim empires of Mesopotamia and north Africa
  • 1258 Baghdad was captured and destroyed
  • Last Abbasid caliph and 800,000 were killed
  • 1260 Mongols were defeated by the Mamluk, slave dynasty of Egypt, led by Baibars
  • Christians cooperated with Baibars against the Mongols
  • Berke: khan of Golden Horde, Muslim, challenged Herlegu’s authority

The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History

  • Mongol rule in China lasted about 100 Years
  • Mongols retained a distinct culture and social separateness until they were driven back beyond the Great Wall in late 1360’s
  • Helped open up China to foreign contacts with Arabia, Persia, Europe
  • Kubilai Khan: grandson of Chinggis led campaigns against Song
  • 1260 Kubilai became Great Khan
  • 1271 established the Yuan dynasty in China
  • Kubilai tried to preserve the distinction between Mongol and Chinese
  • Chinese scholars forbidden from learning Mongol script
  • Mongols forbidden from marrying ethnic Chinese
  • Kubilai did surround himself with Chinese advisors: Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian
  • Capital @Tatu (Beijing)
  • New social structure: Mongols on top w/ central Asian nomadic and Muslim allies below them on hierarchy- then north Chinese and then ethnic Chinese

Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Culture

  • Mongol women refused to footbind
  • Women hunted with their husbands
  • Chabu: wife of Kubilai Khan: close advisor promoted Buddhism

Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influence

  • Patronage of scholars, artists, artisans, and office seekers to Yuan court.
  • Mulsims played important role
  • Chinese style imperial city with Muslim architects
    • Tax collections, navigation, cartography
  • Kubilai welcomed visitors: including Marco Polo and family. 
    • 17 years: allegedly resided at Kubilai’s Court famous account
    • Increased European interest in Asia

Social Policies and Scholar Gentry Resistance

  • Ethnic Chinese never reconciled to Mongol rule
  • Kubilai refused to reinstate civil-service exam- alienate scholar-gentry
  • Kukbilai encouraged artisan class and merchants (against Confucianism)
  • Mongols developed substantial navy
    • Failed attacks on Japan (Divine Wind: Kamikaze)
  • Literary work: Yuan period: The Romance of the West Chamber
  • Protected peasant class: granary system for famine relief
  • Proposed elementary education programs in villages

The Fall of the House of Yuan

  • Mongol rule lasted 90 years: Kubilai majority of that time
  • Song protest
  • Failure of military expeditions against Japan in 1274 and 1280
  • Scholar-gentry capitalized on discontent
  • White-Lotus Society: secret organization dedicated to overthrowing Yuan Dynasty. 
    • Claim of magical powers
  • Ju Yuanghang: poor peasant emerged to forge the Ming Dynasty

Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur

  • Timur-I Lang (Timur the Lame/ Tamerlane) Turk noble who led a nomadic attack
  • Troops committed great atrocities
  • Traveled with skulls of victims
  • Capital at Samarkand
  • Spared artisans and scientists to improve their capital
  • Timur died I 1405 and empire fell apart

Genetic Links today to Genghis Khan: Common ancestor in genome code.
Old Book

  • Tamerlane (b.1330’s-d.1405) (Timur the Lame) ruler of Mongol Khanate based in Samarkand (former Mongol Empire) large conquest campaign
  • End of 15th c. new threats: Mughals and Portuguese traders

 

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