The great war and its aftermath study guide

The great war and its aftermath study guide

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The great war and its aftermath study guide

GOAL 8 – THE GREAT WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH (1914-1930)

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The great war and its aftermath study guide

The Great War
I. Long-term causes of World War I
A. Rival alliances: Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente
1. 1870: Balance of power of Europe upset by decisive
Prussian victory in Franco-Prussian War.
a. Bismarck feared French revenge and negotiated
treaties to isolate France
b. Bismarck also feared Russia, especially after the
Congress of Berlin in 1878 when Russia blamed
Germany for not gaining territory in the Balkans
2. 1879, Dual Alliance: Germany and Austria
a. Bismarck sought to thwart Russian expansion
b. Dual Alliance based on German support for
Austrian in its struggle with Russia over expansion
in the Balkans
c. Became a major feature of European diplomacy
until the end of World War I.
3. Triple Alliance, 1881: Italy joined Germany and
Austria
· Italy sought support for its imperialistic ambitions
in the Mediterranean and Africa.
4. Russian-German Reinsurance Treaty of 1887
a. Promised neutrality of both Germany and Russia if
either country went to war with another country.
b. Kaiser Wilhelm II refused to renew reinsurance
treaty after removing Bismarck in 1890
· This can be seen as a huge diplomatic blunder;
Russia wanted to renew it
· Germany, now out of necessity, developed
closer ties to Austria
· France courted Russia and the two became
allies
5. "Splendid Isolation" for Britain: After 1891, Britain
was the only non-aligned power
6. Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902): Britain sought
Japanese agreement to "benevolent neutrality" to
counter possible Russian threat in India.
· End of Britain’s “splendid isolation”
7. Entente Cordial (1904): In the face of Anglo-
German naval arms race, Britain and France
settled all outstanding colonial disputes in Africa.
a. France accepted British rule of the Sudan
b. Britain recognized French control of Morocco
8. Triple Entente, 1907: Britain, France and Russia
a. Formed to check the power of the Triple Alliance
(Germany, Austria, Italy)
b. Not truly a formal alliance but one done in
principle
B. The Anglo-German arms race
1. Militarism led to a belief in the inevitability of a
general European war.
a. Germany overtook Britain industrially in the 1890s
b. Bertha von Suttner (Austrian)
First woman to win Nobel Peace Prize; opposed
the arms race
Lay Down Your Arms (1889) contributed to
founding of Peace Societies in Austria &
Germany
2. British policy was to have its fleet larger than the
combined fleets of any two rival nations
3. 1898, Kaiser Wilhelm II began expansion of German
navy to protect a growing international trade and
colonialism
a. Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz led the naval buildup for
Germany.
b. Haldane Mission (1912): British tried
unsuccessfully to end naval arms race with
Germany
4. By World War I, both Britain and Germany possessed
Dreadnoughts—new super battleships with
awesome firing range and power
C. Imperialism led to increased tensions between the Great
Powers over Africa
1. Berlin Conference, 1885: Germany's late entry into
imperialism led Bismarck to establish rules for carving
up Africa
Germany aggressively set out to acquire colonies,
sometimes coming into conflict with rival
European powers
2. Kruger Telegram (1902): triggered British anger at
Germany when the Kaiser congratulated the Boers on
their victories over British troops in South Africa.
3. 1906: Algeciras Conference settled the First
Moroccan Crisis
a. Kaiser had urged Moroccan independence despite
its being a French colony
b. Britain and Italy supported French dominance in
Morocco and Tunisia
c. Britain, France, Russia, & U.S. saw Germany as
potential threat to dominate all Europe
d. Germany became further isolated (except for
Austria's support)
e. Germany decried "encirclement" by other
powers to block Germany's emergence as world
power
f. The Triple Entente was created in response
4. Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)
a. German gunboat sent to Morocco to protest
French occupation of the city of Fez.
b. Britain once again supported France
c. Some observers believed this conflict would
escalate into a world war.
d. Germany backed down for minor concessions in
equatorial Africa.
D. Nationalism created a "powder keg" in the Balkans
1. The Ottoman Empire (“the sick man of Europe”)
receded from the Balkans leaving a power vacuum
This was the so-called Eastern Question.
2. Pan-Slavism, a nationalist movement to unite all
Slavic peoples, encouraged the Serbs, Bosnians,
Slovenes, and Croats to seek a single political entity
in Southern Europe
As the southern Slavs’ “big brother” to the east,
Russia focused on Balkan territories in the Austro-
Hungarian and Ottoman Empires after its
humiliating loss in the Russo-Japanese War.
3. First Balkan Crisis (Bosnian Crisis)
a. The Young Turks led by Atatürk (Mustafa Kemal
Pasha) set up a parliamentary gov't in the
Ottoman Empire
Though somewhat politically progressive in its
attempt to modernize the empire, the regime
seemed weak to the other European powers
1911-12, Italy took Turkish province of Libya
showing how weak the Ottomans had become
b. 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina while
Russia failed to gain access, thus leaving Serbia
frustrated
Austria’s action violated the Congress of Berlin
(1878)
c. War was averted because Russia was not yet
ready and France was not willing to fight over the
Balkans
4. First Balkan War (1912)
a. Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria allied to successfully
drive the Turks out of the Balkans
The fighting lasted less than one month
Most of the formerly-Ottoman Balkan
territories were now divided up among the
Balkan states
b. Serbia sought port access to the Adriatic Sea but
was rebuffed when Austria created the state of
Albania to block Serbia.
5. Second Balkan War (1913)
a. Bulgaria was angered that Serbia and Greece had
acquired significant territory in Macedonia and
thus attacked both countries.
b. Serbia defeated Bulgaria in its quest for
Macedonia and temporarily gained Albania as a
result
Russia backed its Slavic neighbor, Serbia
c. Austria, with German support against Russia,
prevented Serbia from holding onto Albania
d. Serbia was frustrated as it still had no access to
the Adriatic Sea; Albania gained independence.
e. Russia was humiliated since it could not help
Serbia acquire Albania
6. "Third Balkan War" between Austria and Serbia
became World War I in the summer of 1914
II. Immediate causes of World War I
A. June 28, 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austrian
heir to throne, was assassinated by Serbian nationalist
Princip (member of the ultra-nationalist Serbian "Black
Hand") while visiting Bosnia-Herzegovina.
B. Kaiser Wilhelm II pledged unwavering support to
Austria to punish Serbia: "the blank check"
1. Austria made harsh demands on Serbia by requiring
Serbia to punish all forms of anti-Austrian sentiment
and participate in joint judicial proceedings against
anti-Austrian activity.
2. Eventually Serbia agreed to most of Austria’s terms
except judicial proceedings which it wanted
adjudicated by the International Tribunal at the
Hague.
C. July 28, Austria declared war on Serbia
1. Claimed Serbia had not accommodated adequately
Austria’s demands.
2. July 29, Austria began bombarding Belgrade (the
capital of Serbia)
This represented the first military aggression of
the war.
3. In response, Russia mobilized its armies against
Austria & Germany
4. France, in response, mobilized on Germany's western
border
D. Aug 1, Germany declared war on France
1. Aug. 3, Germany invaded Belgium (on its way
through to France)
In effect, Germany turned the little localized war
in the Balkans into a world war by attacking
Belgium and France.
2. In response, France declared war on Germany
3. Aug 4, Britain declared war on Germany
E. Two opposing alliances
1. Central Powers (Triple Alliance): Germany, Austria-
Hungary, Ottoman Empire (also Bulgaria)
2. Allies (Triple Entente): Britain, France, Russia (later,
Japan, Italy and U.S.)
III. The Western Front
A. Schlieffen Plan
1. German military plan to invade France through
Belgium, defeat France quickly (6 weeks) by
sweeping around Paris, and then redeploy to the east
to defeat Russia
2. Battle of the Marne (Sept. 1914): After Germans
came within sight of Paris, French and British forces
pushed the German forces back
a. French army led by General Joseph Joffre
b. The battle represented the end of mobility on the
Western Front
3. Why did the Schlieffen Plan fail?
a. Belgians’ surprising resistance to Germany’s
invasion slowed down the German offensive into
France.
b. The left of the German line failed to lure the
French army into Alsace and Lorraine and destroy it
c. The Russians mobilized quickly in the east
requiring German divisions to be sent there
instead
d. French (and British) counterattack at the Battle of
the Marne was decisive in halting the German
invasion.
B. Trench warfare resulted in a stalemate and lasted four
bloody years
1. A long line of trenches stretched from the North Sea
to the Swiss border in the south.
2. Despite massive casualties on both sides, few gains
were made in terms of gaining ground
3. 1916: Massive casualties but neither side could break
through
a. Battle of Verdun (began in February)
Germany sought a battle of attrition that would
“bleed France white” and force it to sue for
peace
France lost 540,000 men; Germany lost
430,000
General Philippe Pétain’s leadership of French
forces made him a national hero.
b. Battle of the Somme (began in July)
British and French offensive to break through
the German lines
Losses of men: Britain 420,000; France
200,000; Germany 650,000
4. Erich Remarque's All Quiet on the Western Front
(1929) later illustrated the horrors trench warfare.
C. Technological advancements in war increased casualties
1. World War I represented the industrial revolution
applied to warfare
2. Machine gun
a. Perhaps most important reason for the frightful
casualties that occurred compared to previous
wars
b. First used effectively by the Germans in mowing
down French and British offensives in trench
warfare.
c. Later employed by both sides
3. Tanks
a. Artillery was now made mobile (in contrast to
cannon used in previous wars)
b. Tanks could navigate treacherous terrain.
4. Airplane
a. Initial air fights consisted of pistols and rifles fired
from planes
b. Germany developed the first fighter plane (the
Fokker) that synchronized machine guns and
propellers.
In response, Britain and France developed their
own fighter squadrons
c. Britain used planes to bomb Zeppelin bases in
Germany
5. Poison gas
a. Used by the Germans early in the war
b. Impact of mustard gas was largely negated by the
use of gas masks by the Allies
6. U-boats
a. Submarines, initially used by Germany, had
devastating effects on Allied shipping throughout
the war.
Britain and Russia also had submarines
b. German use of U-boats was the most important
reason for why the U.S. eventually entered the
war.
7. Zeppelins (blimps) used by Germany to bomb
London and other civilian targets
Eventually, exploding shells were able to destroy
Zeppelins in the air.
8. Radio
a. Wireless technology made communication more
effective in the battlefield.
b. The Germans took advantage Russia’s lack of
radio capability and tapped into Russian phone
lines to discover Russian battle plans.
IV. Other major theaters of the war
A. Eastern Front
1. General Von Hindenburg & General Von
Ludendorf defeated invading Russian armies at
Tannenburg
Turned the tide of the war in the east
2. The Russians were poorly organized and suffered
horrific casualties at the hands of the Germans
3. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Dec. 1917): Vladimir
Lenin, after the Bolshevik Revolution, took Russia out
of the war but was forced to give Germans 1/4 of Russian territory
B. Gallipoli Campaign (1915)
1. British and Australian forces failed to take
Dardanelles as a step toward taking Constantinople
and defeating the Turks
2. 200,000 British troops killed or wounded
C. Middle East
1. T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia): British officer
who scored major victories in the middle east to
weaken the Turks
2. The British gained support from Arab tribes who
resented Ottoman domination of the region.
D. British and Allied Naval Blockade
1. Goal was to strangle Central Powers
2. Starting in 1914, used superior fleet & sea mines to
cut Central Powers off from overseas trade and
caused Germany to lose control of its colonial empire.
3. Germany responded by sinking Allied vessels
4. Lusitania, 1915: U-boats sank a British passenger
liner killing 1,200 (including 128 Americans)
5. Germany in 1917 began unrestricted submarine
warfare, sinking all ships with its U-boats
· Most important reason for U.S. entry into the war
6. By war’s end, the blockade succeeded in strangling
Germany, resulting in thousands of German deaths
due to starvation
E. Allies “unknown war” against Russia: Archangel
expedition (summer 1918)
1. The Allies sought to prevent a Bolshevik victory
during Russian civil war by invading Russia from
Murmansk in the north.
2. Allies also sent troops into Siberia to prevent
Japanese control of the region, rescue thousands of
marooned Czech soldiers and prevent the Bolsheviks
from getting new weapons supplies.
3. In effect, contributed to prolonging the Russian Civil War
V. "Total war": involved mass civilian populations in the war
effort
A. Massive conscription drafted most able-bodied men in
their youth
B. In some cases, civilian populations became targets
1. Early in the war, Germany used Zeppelins to bomb
London
2. The British blockade resulted in significant starvation
in Germany
C. News was censored; propaganda lionized men at the
front and dehumanized the enemy
1. Intense nationalism demanded support from the
entire population
2. Some historians contend that Germany increased its
belligerency in the 1890s in order to rally the masses
behind the government and slow down the growth of
the S.P.D.
a. In 1914, the S.P.D. (then the largest party in the
Reichstag) agreed to support the war as part of
the “civil peace” with the Kaiser—the burgfrieden.
b. The same may have also been true in Britain as
the issue of Irish independence dominated the
headlines.
3. British propaganda effectively demonized Germany as
the “Hun”
D. Economic production was focused on the war effort
1. Free-market capitalism was abandoned in favor of
strong central planning of the economy.
2. Women replaced male factory workers who were now
fighting the war.
a. Accounted for 43% of the labor force in Russia
b. Changing attitudes about women resulted in
increased rights after the war (Britain, Germany,
Austria and the U.S.)
3. Labor unions supported the war effort.
· Saw increased influence and prestige due to
increased demand for labor
4. Rationing of food and scarce commodities was
instituted.
5. Civilians financed the war by buying bonds.
E. Each side aimed at “starving out” the enemy by cutting
off vital supplies to the civilian population.
F. Increase in centralized control by warring regimes
1. In France, Georges Clemenceau created a
dictatorship during the war
2. Germany became the world's first totalitarian regime
in order to control the war effort
· In large part, the impact of the British blockade
resulted in an increasingly repressive gov’t in
Germany
3. British economy was largely planned and regulated
G. War promoted greater social equality, thus blurring class
distinctions and lessening the gap between rich and poor
VI. Diplomacy during the war
A. 1915: neutral Italy entered the war against the Central
Powers (its former allies) with the promise of some
Austrian and Balkan territory—Italia Irredenta
(“unredeemed Italy”)—and some German colonies and
Turkish territories.
B. Zimmerman Note: Germany proposed an alliance with
Mexico against the U.S.
· Mexico would receive much of the southwestern U.S.
if the Central Powers won.
C. Balfour Note (1917) Arabs & Jews in Palestine were
promised autonomy if they joined the Allies.
1. Britain declared sympathy for idea of a Jewish
homeland in Palestine.
2. New policy seemed to contradict British support for
Arab nationalism.
D. Wilson’s 14 Points (Jan. 1918)
1. Plan to end the war along liberal, democratic lines
2. Provisions:
a. Abolish secret treaties
b. Freedom of the seas
c. Remove economic barriers (e.g. tariffs)
d. Reduction of armament burdens
e. Promise of independence (“self-determination”)
to oppressed minority groups (e.g. Poles, Czechs),
millions of which lived in Germany and Austria-
Hungary.
f. Adjustment of colonial claims in interests of both
native peoples and colonizers
g. German evacuation of Russia; restoration of
Belgium; return of Alsace-Lorraine to France;
evacuation and restoration of the Balkans; return
of Schleswig to Denmark
h. Adjustment of Italy’s borders along ethnic lines.
i. Autonomy for non-Turkish parts of the Turkish
Empire.
j. 14th point: International organization to supply
collective security
· Foreshadowed the League of Nations that was
created after the war
VII. End of the War
A. Meuse-Argonne offensive (spring 1918)
1. Germans transferred divisions from the east (after
defeating Russia) to the western front and mounted a
massive offensive.
2. U.S. entered war in time to assist Britain and France
in stopping the German offensive
B. Central Powers sought peace based on 14 Points
(believing they would get fair treatment)
1. Germany and Austria-Hungary were wracked with
revolution
2. Austria surrendered on Nov. 3
3. Germany surrendered on Nov. 11
· Wilhelm II forced to abdicate and fled to Holland
VIII. Paris Peace Conference, 1919
A. Big Four: Lloyd George (Br.), Clemenceau (Fr.), Wilson
(US), Orlando (It)
1. Central powers were excluded from negotiations
since France was concerned with its future security
2. Italy left the conference angry it would not get some
territories it had been promised in 1915
B. Versailles Treaty, 1919
1. Mandates created for former colonies and territories
of the Central Powers
· Much of the Middle East was now controlled by
Britain and France
2. Article 231: placed sole blame for war on Germany;
Germany would be severely punished
a. Germany was forced to pay huge reparations to
Britain and France
b. German army and navy severely reduced
c. Rhineland was demilitarized; Saar coal mines
taken over by France
d. Germany lost all its colonies
3. League of Nations created
a. Germany and Russia were not included
b. The U.S. Senate failed to ratify resulting in U.S.
isolationism
c. The League thus was born as a mere shadow of
what it had originally been intended to achieve
C. Impact of World War I on European Society
1. Massive casualties: 10 million soldiers dead; 10
million civilians dead, many from influenza epidemic;
15 million died in the Russian Revolution
· Thus, the birthrate fell significantly after the war
(though illegitimate births increased)
2. War promoted greater social equality, thus blurring
class distinctions and lessening the gap between rich
and poor
a. The Russian Revolution abolished the nobility and
gave women more rights than any other country
in Europe.
b. Women received the right to vote in Britain the
same year that the war ended; Germany soon
followed.
c. The nobility in Germany, Austria and Russia lost
much of its influence and prestige.
d. During the war, women took over the jobs of men
who were fighting the war (but were paid lower
wages)
3. Dissent increased as the war continued
a. Czar was overthrown by the Provisional gov’t, who
was then overthrown by the Bolsheviks due to
mounting war casualties
b. Irish Republicans staged an insurrection—the
Easter Rebellion—in England in 1916.
c. In Germany, militant socialists and anti-war
activists Rosa Luxembourg and Clara Zetkin were
imprisoned for trying to convince fellow socialists
not to support the war effort.
d. Large crowds of women in France, Austria and
Italy protested working conditions or high prices.
e. Government censorship existed in virtually every
country and people increasingly grew dissatisfied
with the integrity of their governments.
4. End to long-standing royal dynasties
a. Hapsburg dynasty removed in Austria (had lasted
500 years)
b. Romanov dynasty removed in Russia (had lasted
300 years)
c. Hohenzollern dynasty removed in Germany (had
lasted 300 years)
d. Ottoman Empire destroyed (had lasted 500 years)
5. Political map of Europe was redrawn
a. Creation of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and
Yugoslavia
· Albania regained sovereignty
b. Germany split in two by Polish corridor (East
Prussia separated from rest of Germany)
6. The Russian Revolution resulted in world's first
communist country
7. German nationalist resentment of harsh Versailles
Treaty doomed the new Weimar Republic in Germany
· German anger with treaty partially responsible for
rise of Hitler in early 1930s
8. Shift in financial power to the United States
a. Europe lost its preeminent position economically
that it had enjoyed for 500 years
b. The U.S. became the world’s leading creditor and
greatest producer due to the drain of Europe’s
resources.
9. Unresolved political and economic differences led to
WWII
· John Maynard Keynes, The Economic
Consequences of the Peace (1919): Predicted
the harsh terms of the treaty would hurt
Germany’s economy, and thus the economy of the
rest of Europe, and lead to significant future
political unrest.
o When Hitler took control of Germany in 1933
and began its aggressive policies, Keynes’
predictions seemed prophetic.

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