English grammar notes

 

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English grammar notes

 

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English grammar notes

 

Grammar Terms

Active Voice
In the active voice, the subject of the verb does the action (eg They killed the President). See also Passive Voice.

Adjective
A word like big, red, easy, French etc. An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.

Adverb
A word that describes a verb (action) and answers the questions when, where, how or in what circumstances:A word like slowly, quietly, well, often etc. An adverb modifies a verb.

Apostrophe

The punctuation mark ( ' ) that indicates  a) possession, or b) that a letter is missing in a contraction:Don't hit Paul's ball over the fence.

 

Article
The "indefinite" articles are a and an. The "definite article" is the.

a)The boy hit a ball over the fence.

b)A boy hit the ball over a fence.

Auxiliary Verb
A verb that is used with a main verb. Be, do and have are auxiliary verbs. Can, may, must etc are modal auxiliary verbs.

Clause
A group of words containing a subject and its verb (for example: It was late when he arrived).

Complex sentence

A sentence that contains more than one clause.

 

Compound word

Two or more words, most often nouns, combined to make one word: The boy kicked the football. (foot + ball)

Conjunction
A word used to connect words, phrases and clauses (for example: and, but, if).

Contraction

Two words that can be combined to make a shorter word by omitting one or more letters: He didn't hit the ball over the fence. (did + not)

 

Hyphen

A punctuation mark ( - ) used between compound adjectives and some other compound structures: He is three-and-a-half years old.

Idiom(atic)

An expression that has special meaning as a whole and which cannot be translated word by word: They had a ball. (They had a very good time.)

 

Infinitive

The basic form of a verb as in to work or work.

Interjection
An exclamation inserted into an utterance without grammatical connection (for example: oh!, ah!, ouch!, well!).

Modal Verb
An auxiliary verb like can, may, must etc that modifies the main verb and expresses possibility, probability etc. It is also called "modal auxiliary verb".

Noun
A word like table, dog, teacher, America etc. A noun is the name of an object, concept, person or place. A "concrete noun" is something you can see or touch like a person or car. An "abstract noun" is something that you cannot see or touch like a decision or happiness. A "countable noun" is something that you can count (for example: bottle, song, dollar). An "uncountable noun" is something that you cannot count (for example: water, music, money).

Object
In the active voice, a noun or its equivalent that receives the action of the verb. In the passive voice, a noun or its equivalent that does the action of the verb.

Participle
The -ing and -ed forms of verbs. The -ing form is called the "present participle". The -ed form is called the "past participle" (for irregular verbs, this is column 3).

Part Of Speech
One of the eight classes of word in English - noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction and interjection.

Passive Voice
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb (eg The President was killed). See also Active Voice.

Phrase
A group of words not containing a subject and its verb (eg on the table, the girl in a red dress).

Predicate
Each sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The predicate is what is said about the subject.

Preposition
A word like at, to, in, over etc. Prepositions usually come before a noun and give information about things like time, place and direction.

Pronoun
A word like I, me, you, he, him, it etc. A pronoun replaces a noun.

Question words

The same as information words: who, what, where, when, why, how.

 

Quotation marks

The punctuation (") used around the actual words that someone says: Paul said, "I hit the ball over the fence."

Sentence
A group of words that express a thought. A sentence conveys a statement, question, exclamation or command. A sentence contains or implies a subject and a predicate. In simple terms, a sentence must contain a verb and (usually) a subject. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).

Subject
Every sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is the main noun (or equivalent) in a sentence about which something is said.

Semi-colon

Punctuation ( ; ) used to separate two clauses that are connected, but which could be written as two sentences: Paul hit the ball; it went over the fence.

 

Singular

Indicates one of something. If a noun, it is a count noun and may be preceded by a/an/the pronouns can also be singular: He hit a ball over the fence.

 

Statement

A positive sentence with subject + verb + (object) word order:He hit the ball over the fence.

Tense
The form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present or future). Note that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.

Verb
A word like (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin. A verb describes an action or state.

 

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Adjectives - Word Order - The order of adjectives before a noun.
Adjectives ending in -ED and -ING - A list of these adjectives and the difference between the two types
Adverbs - When to use adverbs and the different types of adverbs.
Adverbs of Frequency (Always, Often, Never, Seldom etc.)
Adverbs Spelling -LY
Adverbs vs. Adjectives - The difference between adverbs and adjectives.
Articles - Definite and Indefinite - When to use (and not use) A, AN and THE.
Can - Cannot
Comparatives and Superlatives - Comparing things with -er and -est.
Compound Adjectives - When to put the hyphen between adjectives
Countable and Uncountable Nouns - The different types of Nouns and Uses
Do vs. Does - How to make questions in the Present Tense with Do and Does
Don't vs. Doesn't - How to make negative sentences with don't and doesn't
For vs. Since - When to use For and when to use Since.
Future - Will - Using Will to talk about the future.
Future - Will vs. Going to - The difference between Will and Going to (future).
Genitive Case - When to use the apostrophe and the S ('s)
Going to - Using Going to in different tenses.
Have Has Go Goes - To Have and To Go in Affirmative, Negative and Questions
Like vs. As - The difference between Like and As when used to compare.
Much - Many - A lot of - Few - These common quantifiers and when to use them.
Noun + To Be + Noun
Object Pronouns - Me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Passive Voice - The difference between Active and Passive sentences and examples of them in many tenses.
Past Participles - Past participles are used in Perfect Tenses and Passive Voice.
Past Tense Irregular Verbs - A list of verbs that are irregular in the Past Tense
Plural Nouns - Regular & irregular nouns in plural form
Possessive Adjectives - My, your, his, her, its, our, their.
Possessive Pronouns - Mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
Prepositions List - A list of Prepositions in English.
Prepositions of Place - An explanation of the different prepositions of place in English
Prepositions of Time - At / On / In - When to use At, On and In regarding time.
Present Perfect Tense - When to use the Perfect Tense and its structure
Present Tense Verbs - Third Person - Conjugation of He, She, it in Present Tense
Present Tense vs. Progressive Tense
Present vs. Progressive vs. Past Tense - Comparing these three tenses.
Pronunciation of ED - The correct pronunciation of words that end in ED.
Pronunciation of -S - The correct pronunciation of words that end in S.
Question Tags - Which question tags to use and when.
Question Words (Who, When, Why, What, Which, How)
Reflexive Pronouns - Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
Short Answers - Past Tense
Short Answers - Present Tense
Short Answers - To Be (Present Tense)
Simple Present Tense - How to make basic sentences in English
So - Neither - Either
So vs. Such - The difference between So and Such
Some - Any - A - An - When to use these words
Spelling - Words ending in ING - Both present participles and gerunds
Still, Yet, Already - The difference between Still, Yet and Already
Subject Pronouns - I, You, He, She, It, We, You, They
There is / There are
There vs Their vs They're - The difference between these words
This That These Those - Demonstrative Pronouns
To Be (Past Tense)
To Be (Present Tense) - Using the verb To Be in the Present Tense
Two - Too - To - The difference between these words that sound the same.
Used to vs Use to - The difference between Used to and Use to.
Very vs. Too vs. Enough - The difference between Very, Too and Enough.
Where + To Be
Whoever, Whatever, Whenever - The difference between these W-ever words.

 

English grammar notes

• Grammar adjectives

• Grammar adverbs

• Grammar articles

• Grammar conjunctions

• Grammar interjections

• Grammar nouns

• Grammar prepositions

• Grammar pronouns

• Grammar singular and plural

• Grammar verbs

English grammar notes

 

ENGLISH I GRAMMAR NOTES:

Verbs Tense Consistency

 

VERB	The part of speech that indicates an action or state of being.
VERB TENSE	This indicates whether the verb describes an action or state of being that is in the present, past, or future.
CONSISTENCY	Being the same throughout; agreement among parts; uniformity.

 

To make sure your verbs are consistent, just check their tense (the time they refer to). If you're writing in the past tense, for example, don't shift into the present unless you've got a logical reason to do so. If you do, you may confuse your readers about when something happened or something is happening--and you'll be having a problem with consistency. Look at these examples:

 

When Peggy was a pup, she was so uncoordinated that she often falls down. Big Dog barks at the moon, and Peggy crawled through the bushes.

 

In number 1, the first two verbs ("was") are in the past tense; the third ("falls") is in the present. Why? There's no logical reason for the shift, so the tense is inconsistent. Change "falls" to "fell" and you have no problem.

 

In number 2, the first verb ("barks") is in the present tense; the second ("crawled") is in the past. Again, there is no logical reason for the shift. Switch "crawled" to "crawls," and you're okay. (Obviously which verb or verbs you change will depend on the meaning of your sentences.)

 

If you haven't noticed, the key to all this is logical reason. If you need to make a tense shift for your ideas to make sense, then make it. If you write a sentence like, "I live in Amarillo, but two years ago I lived in Atlanta."--there's nothing wrong. You're showing a logical relation between the past and the present.

Strictly speaking, in English, only two tenses are marked in the verb alone, present (as in "he sings") and past (as in "he sang"). Other English language tenses, as many as thirty of them, are marked by other words called auxiliaries. Understanding the six basic tenses allows one to re-create much of the reality of time in his writing. The six are

 

Simple Present:	They walk
Present Perfect:	They have walked
Simple Past:	They walked
Past Perfect:	They had walked
Future:	They will walk
Future Perfect:	They will have walked

Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, all of which are formed by adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle, the third principal part.

ring, rang, rung

walk, walked, walked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have," "had," and they are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion.

 

Check the following sentences for confusing shifts in tense. If the tense of each underlined verb expresses the time relationship accurately, write S (satisfactory). If a shift in tense is not appropriate, write U (unsatisfactory) and make necessary changes. In most cases with an inappropriate shift, there is more than one way to correct the inconsistency. Reading the sentences aloud will help you recognize differences in time.

 

___ 1. While Barbara puts in her contact lenses, the telephone rang.

 

___ 2. By the time negotiations began, many pessimists have expressed doubt about them.

 

___ 3.    After Capt. James Cook visited Alaska on his third voyage, he is killed by Hawaiian

islanders in 1779.

 

___ 4. I was terribly disappointed with my grade because I will study very hard.

 

___ 5. Everyone hopes the plan would work.

 

___ 6. Harry wants to show his friends the photos he took last summer.

 

___ 7. Scientists predict that the sun will die in the distant future.

 

___ 8. The boy insisted that he has paid for the candy bars.

 

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English grammar notes

SYNTAX                                                                                     

 

Syntax is the manner in which a speaker or author constructs a sentence and how it affects what the audience understands. Short sentences are often emphatic, passionate, or flippant; longer sentences suggest the writer's more deliberate, thoughtful response; and very long, discursive sentences give a narrative a rambling, meditative tone.

 

EFFECTS OF SYNTAX

 

 

 

Describing Sentence Structure

 

Describe the sentence structure by considering these questions:

 

Are the sentences:

Staccato (one to two words in length- abrupt)

Telegraphic (shorter than 5 words in length),

Short (approximately 5 words in length),

Medium (approximately 18 words in length),

Long and involved (30 words or more in length)?

 

What is the number of sentences per paragraph?

 

What is the rhythm of the sentences?

 

Are they in the active or passive voice?

 

What is the effect of the sentence length the author uses?

 

Examine sentence beginnings. Is there a good variety, or does a pattern emerge?

 

Examine the arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a special way for a purpose?

 

Do the same for a paragraph. Does the arrangement of ideas suggest a particular strategy on the part of the author?

 

SENTENCE PATTERNS

 

One of the most important elements of syntax is the way the words, phrases, and clauses are arranged. This is a key element of the author's style and can have a marked effect on meaning.

 

Declarative sentences make a statement: e.g., "The king is sick."

 

Imperative sentences give a command: e.g., "Cure the king!"

 

Interrogative sentences ask a question: e.g., "Is the king sick?"

 

Exclamatory sentences provide emphasis or expresses strong emotion: e.g., "The king is dead! Long live the king!"

 

Simple sentences contain one independent clause: e.g., "The singer bowed to her adoring audience."

 

Compound sentences contain two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon: e.g., "The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores."

 

Complex sentences contain an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses: e.g., "Because the singer was tired, she went straight to bed after the concert."

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one, or more subordinate clauses: e.g., "The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores."

 

Loose or cumulative sentences make complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: e.g., “We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors." The sentence could end before the modifying phrases without losing its coherence: “We reached Edmonton that morning.”

 

Periodic sentences make sense fully only when the end of the sentence is reached: e.g., "That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton."

 

Balanced sentences have phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g., "He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters."

 

Natural order of a sentence involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate: e.g., "Oranges grow in California."

 

Inverted order of a sentence (sentence inversion) involves constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the subject: e.g., "In California grow the oranges." This is a device in which typical sentence patterns are reversed to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect.

 

Juxtaposition is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, often creating an effect of surprise and wit: e.g., "The apparition of these faces in the crowd:/Petals on a wet, black bough." ("In a Station of the Metro" by Ezra Pound)

 

Parallel structure (parallelism) refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased: e.g., "He loved swimming, running, and playing tennis."

 

Repetition is a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm and to create emphasis: e.g., "...government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth." ("Address at Gettysburg" by Abraham Lincoln)

 

Rhetorical questions are questions that require no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement: e.g., "If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin's arguments?"

 

Rhetorical fragments are sentence fragments used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to create a desired effect: e.g., "Something to consider."

 

 

Sentence Structures
simple sentence	contains one subject and one verb has only one main, complete thought The singer bowed to her adoring audience.
compound sentence	contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinate conjunction (and, but, or) or by a semicolon has two or more main, complete thoughts. Two or more simple sentences are joined, usually with or, but, or and. The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores.
complex sentence	has one simple sentence and one or more clauses. These clauses are connected to the simple sentence with words like because, while, when, if, as, although, since, unless, after, so, which, who, and that. contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses After she bowed to the audience, the singer sang an encore.
compound-complex sentence	a combination of the above contains two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.

 

Loose sentence	makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending We reached Edmonton/that morning/after a turbulent flight/and some exciting experiences.
Periodic sentence	makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.
Balanced sentence	the phrases and clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters

The Cumulative or Loose Sentence

A cumulative or loose sentence is a type of parallel sentence which builds through parallel constructions (dependent phrases or clauses) after a main clause. Remember: in the cumulative sentence, the main clause (with the subject and verb) comes first.

 

Formula: Main clause + Parallel Dependent phrases or clauses

 

A loose or cumulative sentence is one in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent clauses and phrases; therefore, a loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: e.g., “We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but still exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors.” The sentence could end before the modifying phrase without losing its coherence. Loose sentences are the most natural for English speakers, who almost always talk in loose sentences: even the most sophisticated English writers tend to use loose sentences much more often than periodic sentences.

 

The brilliant assembly filed past us, the marshals with their batons and ceremonial red hats, the professors draped in their doctoral hoods, the graduates in somber black that contrasted with their jubilant mood.

1.  

Nothing could deflect that wall of water, sweeping away trees and boulders, engulfing streets and villages, churning and roaring like a creature in pain.

1.  

Then I saw that the child had died, never more to enjoy getting into trouble with his friends, never again to tell innocent lies to his parents, never to look with hopeful shyness at a girl he desires.

 

Cumulative sentences add parallel elements at the end. These sentences are especially effective for description, even if they use only a single detail at the end.

 

The student sat quietly, trembling at the thought of writing an essay. [using a single detail]

 

The hounds continued to bray—uncontrollably, maddeningly, horribly. [using multiple details]

 

Famous Cumulative Sentence

 

George was coming down in the telemark position, kneeling, one leg forward and bent, the other trailing, his sticks hanging like some insect’s thin legs, kicking up puffs of snow, and finally the whole kneeling, trailing figure coming around in a beautiful right curve, crouching, the legs shot forward and back, the body leaning out against the swing, the sticks accenting the curve like points of light all in a cloud of snow.

 

[An example of a complex cumulative sentence from Hemingway’s In Our Time --quoted in Miles, Bertonasco and Karns, Prose Style: A contemporary Guide (1991)

 

The Periodic Sentence

A periodic sentence is a type of parallel sentence which builds through three or more parallel constructions (dependent phrases or clauses) to a main clause.

Remember: in the periodic sentence, the main clause (with the subject and verb) comes last.

 

Formula= Parallel Dependent Clauses and Phrases + Main Clause

1.  

A periodic sentence (also called a period) is a sentence that is not grammatically complete until its end. Periodicity is accomplished by the use of parallel phrases or clauses at the opening or by the use of dependent clauses preceding the independent clause; that is, the kernel of thought contained in the subject/verb group appears at the end of a succession of modifiers: e.g., “That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we finally reached Edmonton.” The periodic sentence has become much rarer in formal English writing over the past hundred years, and it has never been common in informal spoken English (outside of bad political speeches). My own biased opinion is that this is a result of our fast-food approach to contemporary life and all aspects of culture, including both non-fiction and literature. In fact, I think this is regrettable, because periodicity is a powerful rhetorical tool. An occasional periodic sentence is not only dramatic but persuasive: even if the readers do not agree with your conclusion, they will read your evidence first with open minds. If you use a loose sentence with hostile readers, the readers will probably close their minds before considering any of your evidence. Therefore, when it is used to arouse interest and curiosity, and to hold an idea in suspense before its final revelation, a periodic sentence is most effective.

 

But if life hardly seems worth living, if liberty is used for subhuman purposes, if the pursuers of happiness know nothing about the nature of their quarry or the elementary techniques of hunting. these constitutional rights will not be very meaningful. (E. Warren)

 

As long as politicians talk about withdrawal while they attack, as long as the government invades privacy while it discusses human rights, as long as we act in fear while speak of courage, there can be no security, there can be no peace. If students are absorbed in their own limited worlds, if they are disdainful of the work of their teachers, if they are scornful of the lessons of the past, then the great cultural heritage which must be transmitted from generation to generation will be lost.

 

The Balanced Sentence

 

A balanced sentence is a type of parallel sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. In reading the sentence aloud, one tends to pause between the balanced parts, each seeming equal. When writing a balanced sentence, be certain that both parts of the sentence have the clear parallels of form, that they appear parallel grammatically.

 

In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their

likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g., “He maketh me lie down in green

pastures; he leadeth me beside still waters.”

 

George Bernard Shaw said of writers: The ambition of the novice is to acquire the Literary Language; the struggle of the adept is to get rid of it. [Each part of the sentence follows the same pattern: subject, verb, infinitive phrase.]

 

Content of a Balanced Sentence

Balanced sentences are particularly effective if you have an idea that has a contrast or antithesis. Balanced sentences can emphasize the contrast so that the rhetorical pattern reflects and supports the logical pattern.

 

No man has ever seen anything that Burne-Jones cannot paint, but many men have painted what Burne-Jones cannot see.

1. (Shaw)

And so my fellow Americans—ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.

(Kennedy)

1.  

If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.

(Kennedy)

 

It is not that today’s artists cannot paint, it is that today’s critics cannot see.

(Rothko)

Some of the above examples illustrate not only balanced sentences but also a device called “antimetabole,” in which the order of words is reversed in one of the parallel structures to produce a clever effect. The following are examples of antimetabole:

1. When the going gets tough, the tough get going.
2. You can take the gorilla out of the jungle, but you can't take the jungle out of the gorilla.

 

The Balanced Paragraph

One can also develop an entire paragraph by balance. This is particularly useful if you are developing a series of contrasts.

1. I felt myself in rebellion against the Greek concept of justice. That concept excused Laius of attacking Oedipus, but condemned Oedipus for defending himself. It tolerated a king’s deliberate attempt to kill his baby son by piercing the infant’s feet and abandoning it on a mountain, but later branded the son’s unintentional killing of his father as murder. It held Oedipus responsible for his ignorance, but excused those who contributed to that ignorance. (Krutch)

 

Natural order of a sentence	involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate Oranges grow in California.
Inverted order of a sentence (sentence inversion)	involves constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the subject (this is a device in which normal sentence patterns are reversed to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect) In California grow oranges.
Split order of a sentence	divides the predicate into two parts with the subject coming in the middle In California oranges grow.

 

 

Juxtaposition	a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit The apparition of these faces in the crowd; /Petals on a wet, black bough.
Parallel structure (parallelism)	refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence; it involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased He was walking, running and jumping for joy.
Repetition	a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm and create emphasis “…government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth”
Rhetorical question	a question that expects no answer; it is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments?
Rhetorical fragment	a sentence fragment used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to create a desired effect Something to consider.
Anaphora	the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing-grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills.”
Asyndeton	a deliberate omission of conjunctions in a series of related clauses “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Chiasmus/ Antimetabole	a sentence strategy in which the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a reversal of the first “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country”
Polysyndeton	the deliberate use of many conjunctions for special emphasis to highlight quantity or mass of detail or to create a flowing, continuous sentence pattern The meal was huge – my mother fixed okra and green beans and ham and apple pie and green pickled tomatoes and ambrosia salad and all manner of fine country food – but no matter how I tried, I could not consume it to her satisfaction.
Stichomythia	dialogue in which the endings and beginnings of each line echo each other, taking on a new meaning with each new line “Hamlet, thou hast thy father much offended. Mother, you have my father much offended.”
Zeugma	the use of the verb that has two different meanings with objects that complement both meanings He stole both her car and her heart that fateful night.

 

 

Punctuation
Ellipses	a trailing off; equally etc.; going off into a dreamlike state
Dash	interruption of a thought; an interjection of a thought into another
Semicolon	parallel ideas; equal ideas; a piling up of detail
Colon	a list; a definition or explanation; a result
Italics	for emphasis
Capitalization	for emphasis
Exclamation Point	for emphasis; for emotion

                               

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English grammar notes

Grammar notes: reported speech

Definition

Reported speech is often also called indirect speech. When we use reported speech, we are usually talking about the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too. For example:

"I'm going to the cinema".
He said he was going to the cinema.

 

Basic tense chart

The tenses generally move backwards in this way (the tense on the left changes to the tense on the right):

 

Other verb forms

Other verb forms also sometimes change:

Things are slightly more complicated with imperatives.

 

When verbs don't follow the rules

1. The verb tenses do not always follow the rules shown above. For example, if the reporting verb is in the present tense, there is no change in the reported sentence. Also, a sentence in direct speech in a present or future tense can remain the same if what is said is still true or relevant. For example:

You've invited someone for dinner at your house, and the phone rings. It's them! They say:
I'm sorry, but I think I'm going to be a bit late. There's a lot of traffic.

After you finish speaking on the phone, you say to someone else:
That was Juan. He said he thinks he's going to be late because there's a lot of traffic.

Another example:

A friend says to you:
María's ill. She's got chickenpox!

You say to someone else:
Laura said that María's ill. She's got chickenpox.

However, the following day you see María at the beach. You're surprised and say to her:
Laura said that you were ill. She said you had chickenpox.

This has to change to the past because it isn't true. María obviously isn't ill.

1. Direct statements in a past tense do not always change either, because a change might alter the meaning or just make it sound confusing.

For example:

A friend is telling you about the horrible weather:
It started raining heavily when I left work.

This is where things get confusing:

He said it had started raining heavily when he had left work (it sounds horrible and the sentence is almost nothing but verbs).

He said it had started raining heavily when he left work (is wrong because it means it was already raining when he left work)

He said it started raining heavily when he left work (is the best version because it is accurate, short, and there is no confusion because of the time context)

Generally speaking, the past simple and continuous don't always need to be changed if:

there is a time context which makes everything clear,

and/or

there is another action already using the past perfect, which might alter the meaning or make things confusing.

 

Time and place references

Time and place references often have to change:

Examples:

I went to the theatre last night.
He said he had gone to the theatre the night before.

I'm having a party next weekend.
He said he was having a party the next weekend.

I'm staying here until next week.
He said he was staying there until the following week.

I came over from London 3 years ago.
He said he had come over from London 3 years before.

 

Personal pronouns

You also need to be careful with personal pronouns. They need to be changed according to the situation. You need to know the context. For example, there is possible confusion when you try to change reported speech to direct speech:

She said she'd been waiting for hours.
(Is she one person or two different people?)

I told them they would have to ask permission.
(Are we talking about two groups of people or only one?)

 

Source :

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English grammar notes

Editing for Punctuation: end marks and commas

End mark:

• Placed at end of sentence
• Three kinds
• Use a period at end of a sentence.
• Use a question mark at the end question.
• Use an exclamation point at the end of an exclamation
• Use period or an exclamation point at the end of a request or command.

Comma:

 

• Use to separate items in a series
• Separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series to show reader where one item is series ends and next item begins
• Make sure there are three or more items in a series; two items often do not need a comma.
• Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives that come before a noun
• Sometimes the final adjective in a series is so closely linked to the noun that a comma is not used before the final adjective. If you aren’t sure whether the final adjective and noun are linked, use this test: Insert the word and between the adjectives.  If and makes sense, use a comma.  Example: Training a frisky colt to become a gentle, dependable riding horse takes great patience. (And doesn’t make sense between dependable and riding.)
• Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet when it joins independent clauses.  Example: Outside the wind was higher than ever, and the old man stared nervously at the sound of a door banging upstairs.
• Use a comma to set off an expression that interrupts a sentence. Example: The spider web, shining in the early light, looked like sparkling lace.
• Use a comma to set off an appositive,  or appositive phrase, that is non-essential.  Example: Robert Frost, my favorite poet, won four Pulitzer Prizes.
• Use a comma to set off words used in direct address. Example: John, do you know who wrote “The Red Pony”?
• Use a comma to set off a parenthetical expression (a side remark that adds information or relates ideas).  Example: Brer Possum should have known, of course, that Brer Snake would bite him.

 

                                  Some commonly used parenthetical expression

 

After all                                for example                                         on the other hand

At any rate                          for instance                                         I believe

By the way                          generally speaking                             in my opinion

In fact                                  of course                                              in the first place

 

 

A semicolon separates complete thoughts as a period does and also separates items within a sentence as a comma does.

 

               Use a semicolon instead of a comma between closely related independent clauses when they are not joined by and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet.

 

 

Editing for Punctuation: quotation marks

• Use quotation marks to close a direct quotation—a person’s exact words.  Example: “Have you read The Dog and the Cat?” asked Mr. Jones.
• Do not use quotation marks for an indirect quotation—a rewording of a direct quotation.  Example: Mr. Jones asked me if I had read The Dog and the Cat.
• A direct quotation begins with a capital letter.  Example: Abe Lincoln said, “The ballot is stronger than the bullet.” 
• When the expression identifying the speaker interrupts a quoted sentence, the second part of the quotation begins with a lower case letter.  Example:  “What are some of the things”, asked Mrs. Perkins, “that the astronauts discovered on the moon?”
• When the second part of a divided quotation is a sentence, it begins with a capital letter.  Example: “John and Sarah went bike riding,” said Mrs. Smith.  “They left an hour ago.”
• A direct quotation is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma, a question mark, or an exclamation point, but not by a period.  If a quotation appears at the beginning of a sentence, a comma follows it.  If a quotation falls at the end of a sentence, a comma comes before it. If a quoted sentence is interrupted, a comma follows the first part and comes before the second part. Example: “I’ve just finished reading a book about Harriet Taubman,” Allison wrote.  Jamie said, “My favorite writer is Ray Bradbury.”  “Did you know,” asked Helen, “that O. Henry is a pseudonym of William Sydney Porter?”
• A period or comma is always place inside the closing quotation marks.
• A question mark or an exclamation point is placed inside the closing quotation marks when the quotation itself is a question or exclamation.  Otherwise, the question mark or exclamation point is placed outside. Examples:
• “Did Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings write The Yearling?” asked Ken. (the quotation is a question)
• Sheilia exclaimed, “I can’t find my homework!” (the quotation is an exclamation)
• What did the captain mean when he said “Hard aport”? (the sentence, not the quotation, is a question)

• When both the sentence and the quotation at the end of the sentence are questions (or exclamations), only one question mark (or exclamation point) is used.  It is placed inside the closing quotation marks.  Example:
• Who wrote the poem that begins “How do I love thee?”
• When you write dialogue (conversation), begin a new paragraph each time you change speakers.
• When a quotation consists of several sentences, place quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of the whole quotation.  Example:
• “Oh, please come in.  I’m so happy to see you. Let me take your hat and coat,” said Miss Davis.
• Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.  Example:
• “What Longfellow poem begins ‘Listen, my children, and you shall hear’? Carol asked.

 

Source :

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